Further specialization of the respective areas of the right and left hemispheres
in these tasks has also been suggested. The right inferior prefrontal cortex is
more active (Casey et al., 2011) in subjects who demonstrate more“willpower”
when some impulse has to be suppressed (in the classical test children are
asked to resist eating a piece of marshmallow in front of them). The prefrontal
cortex is also a key area for thinking about the self and others. The medial
prefrontal cortex contributes to thinking about other people’s thoughts, a
cognitive ability called the Theory of Mind (Ward, 2012, pp. 142–5; see
sections 2.2.2 and 8.1). Various parts of the prefrontal cortex have been
connected to self-reflection, either in dealing with current information related
to the self or using autobiographical memory (Lieberman, 2007). Different
parts of the prefrontal cortex have been shown to contribute to decision-
making, planning, reflection, attention, and other higher cognitive functions.
3.3 ARE ALL BRAINS ALIKE?Was Paul’s brain like ours? Are the brains of any two human beings suffi-
ciently similar to make valid conclusions from studying brain anatomy and
functions at one place and time about the brains of people living in other
cultures and historical periods? More generally, do individual differences not
invalidate any sweeping theory about the brain? These questions are so
complex and imply so many research topics and current discussions that
answering them would surpass the limits of this short survey. We will briefly
address three aspects of the problem: (1) individual development; (2) histor-
ical perspectives; (3) gender differences.
(1) Let usfirst take a look at issues related to individual development. It is
a truism that not two people are exactly identical down to the smallest detail:
even identical twins have different lifehistories that result in developmental
differences. After all, the genetic program we inherit interacts with environ-
mental constraints to produce the organism that we are. However, while we
can intuitively accept the fact that the environment shapes a developing
organism, it is important to emphasize the degree of precision with which a
single fertilized cellfinds its way to become a complex organism made up of
myriad cells belonging to hundreds of cell types (Stearns & Hoekstra, 2005,
pp. 124–73). Each cell knows where they are relative to other cells in the
organism and developmental genes adjust the genetic program of the cell
accordingly. Responses to environmental factors during development are
regulated by genes and phenotypical variation is not random but systematic.
For example, waterfleas develop helmets and other defense mechanisms
58 Cognitive Science and the New Testament