22
space, sometimes taken as the mere geographical location in which lives
unfold, is an important dimension for sociological analysis. Simonsen
( 1996 ) suggested at least three conceptualisations of space applicable in
social analysis: space as material environment (material structures as
social constructs); space as difference (regions and localities differ, both
materially and immaterially, and this influences social processes); and
space as social spatiality (social processes are situated in space and time).
As Bott ( 1971 ) showed, location is particularly relevant for personal net-
works because members of local communities know and interact with
one another and are therefore capable of sharing beliefs, conformity, and
sanctions.
In modern societies, spatial differentiation has been associated with
geographical distances, but Giddens ( 1990 ) stressed that combination or
recombination of time and space is a core dynamic of late modernity.
Currently the concepts of space, place, and location are separated, and
space may be represented without identification of location. Modern
institutions spread globally, and social relations link distant localities
across the world (Giddens 1990 ). Therefore, social phenomena are less
and less embedded into a specific geographical place. This influences
social relations: they may be restructured into forms that are not endog-
enous to a place, or sometimes even contradict local cultures and social
norms. Simultaneously, as Giddens ( 1990 ) highlighted, the nation-state
system, which ties the global world together, still holds power deriving
from entrenched capitalist and state structures. So space may be (re)cre-
ated and (re)organised in different ways, which may be disconnected
from other places (Harvey 1989 ). Sociological analysis therefore needs to
identify what is associated with locality, history, social processes, etc.
Social and Historical Background
We start by looking at the socio-historical and welfare contexts in
Lithuania, Portugal, and Switzerland, as these contexts are expected to
shape both life course patterns and personal networks. These countries
have quite distinct historical and political backgrounds.
V. Ramos et al.