background of the phenomenon discussed in Seneca’s work.^1 As
Seneca’s treatise focuses on interpersonal gifts and favours and, in
particular, the beneficial intention of the giver, this work bears some
resemblance to the phenomenon of recognition. My use of Griffin
does not imply, however, any systematic adoption of the view of
recognition as gift exchange. I only draw some attention to
her three alternative interpretations of Roman social history with
regard to Seneca.
In older scholarship, the giving and receiving of favours was
understood in terms of friendship (philia,amicitia). According to
this interpretation, Seneca’s benefits resemble Aristotle’s discussion of
friendship and beneficence (euergesia) in theNicomachean Ethics.
However, as Seneca mostly invokes unequal relationships, focusing
on the duties of the wealthy to aid their less fortunate fellow beings,
the interpretation that proceeds from friendship is not convincing.^2
In Roman social history, the phenomenon of patronage was‘the
voluntary, continuing exchange-relationship between men of unequal
power or status’.^3 Current social history regards this relationship as
fundamental in Roman society. For many reasons, the relationship
betweenpatroniandclienteslooks similar to the issues discussed by
Seneca. The patrons aided their clients and were regarded as masters
to whom the clients related as servants. Griffin does not, however,
adopt this interpretation with regard toDe beneficiis. While the
system of patronage is a regulated social structure and a mechanism
of power, Seneca’s exchange of favours describes the emergence of a
new voluntary relationship.^4
In Griffin’s view, the interpretation of this exchange as patronage
inverts cause and effect. Seneca’sactsofbeneficence do not describe
already existing structures and obligations. On the contrary, benefits
create a voluntary relationship that resembles friendship to some extent.
Benefits are not duties in the same sense as the obligations of patronage.
Moreover, benefits usually, though not always, concern people of dif-
ferent status. The exchange ofbeneficiathus creates a distinct type of
relationship that is neither normal friendship nor normal patronage.^5
Griffin argues that Seneca’sbeneficiadescribe a gift exchange that
is carefully distinguished from economic exchange. She considers that
De beneficiisoutlines a theory of initial giving and receiving that is
(^1) Griffin 2013. (^2) Griffin 2013, 31. (^3) Griffin 2013, 32.
(^4) Griffin 2013, 32–5. (^5) Griffin 2013, 35–6.
Recognition in Religion 201