196 • Part III: YOGa FOr EDUCatING FOr SELF-rEGULatION aND ENGaGEMENt CHaPtEr 9: YOGa aS EMBODIED SELF-rEGULatION aND ENGaGEMENt • 197
another twist in its history. Both scholars and practitioners began to raise concerns over yoga’s
authenticity. Some hold that an authentic Indian yoga practice should be held as the standard
by which all yoga should be compared and contrasted (Cook-Cottone, 2015; Singleton &
Byrne, 2008). Conversely, others suggest that contemporary practices of yoga should “not be
dismissed or condemned simply on account of their dislocation from perceived tradition”
(Singleton & Byrne, 2008, p. 6). Still others say that this tension may be a misunderstanding
of the history of yoga. For example, Liberman (2008) argues that there never was an authentic
Indian yoga practice, or pure yoga, as some imagine, and that the concept of pure yoga is a
social construction. Liberman (2008) argues further that asana practice, as we know it now,
did not manifest until the 10th to 12th centuries with the earliest forms of yoga consisting
primarily of contemplation and mantra (Liberman, 2008). Strauss (2005) refers to the pizza
effect. This is an anthropological term that refers to the phenomenon of certain elements of a
nation or culture being transformed or more completely embraced elsewhere, ultimately to
be re-imported back to the culture of origin. That is, the yoga that we debate is not the yoga
that came from India. Today’s yoga, in all its diversity and complexity, is something new. “It
is extraordinarily different from its counterparts in antiquity” (Horton, 2012, p. 23).
Over the past 30 years we have seen the emergence of the medicalization of yoga.
In this paradigm, researchers and practitioners advocate for the practice of yoga to address
health concerns through prevention and intervention (Cook-Cottone, 2015). This shift
toward medicalization has somewhat relieved religious and cultural tensions by providing
validity of the practice from another source—the field of medicine (Cook-Cottone, 2015;
De Michelis, 2008; Strauss, 2005). Horton (2012) called the contemporary yoga paradoxical:
“a modern invention with ancient roots, a fitness fad with spiritual sustenance, a $6 billion
‘industry’ with non-material values” (p. xi). As incarnations of its forms come and go, it
is increasingly clear that yoga is a creative process, always evolving as its central, core
feature—the integration of physical engagement, breath, and intention—weaves its way
through the centuries. And so the debate continues questioning secularism, religious con-
tent, authenticity, and cultural appropriation. There is so much more to know about the
rich history of yoga, along with its many nuances, that are not within the scope of this text.
I encourage you to access the papers I have cited. Read them in their entirety. See also Sarah
Strauss’s (2005), Positioning Yoga: Balancing Acts Across Cultures and Carol Horton’s (2012)
Yoga Ph.D.: Integrating the Life of the Mind and the Wisdom of the Body.
traDItIONaL aND CONtEMPOrarY tYPES OF YOGa
There are many forms of yoga. In Chapter 10, I review many of the current styles of yoga that
have originated from these early forms (e.g., Vinyasa, Power, Ashtanga, and Yin). Traditionally,
yoga is described in older texts in terms of seven main paths (i.e., Hatha, Raja, Jnana, Mantra,
Karma, Bhakti, and Tantra [with Kundalini]; Anderson & Sovik, 2000; Cook-Cottone, 2015;
Simpkins & Simpkins, 2011; Stephens, 2010). No path is considered entirely separate and the
final goal remains the same across all paths: integration of the inner world, harmony with
the outer world, and connection with the true nature of self (Anderson & Sovik, 2000). I think
of the true nature of self as the version of self that comes from a deep connection with your
inner experience (i.e., thoughts, feelings, and the needs and strengths of your body) and
intentional, authentic engagement with your outer experience (i.e., family, friends, commu-
nity, and culture). The true nature of self honors inner experiences and carefully cultivates