CHAPTER 2: dYSREgulATion To diSoRdER • 35disconnected from the present moment and as if they are experiencing the traumatic
moment. Further, PTSD is associated with the persistent avoidance of trauma-reminiscent
stimuli, negative moods and thoughts associated with the event, and notable alterations in
arousal and reactivity associated with the traumatic event (APA, 2013). Students with PTSD
may have behavioral problems, high levels of anxiety, attendance problems, and difficulty
maintaining academic success (Cook-Cottone, 2004). The role of mindfulness and yoga in
the treatment of PTSD is reviewed in forthcoming chapters of this book.
Mood disorders and Suicidality
According to the YRBSS, during the 12 months before the survey, 29.9% of student
nationwide had felt so sad or hopeless almost every day for 2 or more consecutive weeks
that they stopped some of their usual activities (Kann et al., 2014). These rates varied by
ethnicity and race and were substantially higher among females (39.1%; White females
35.7%; Black females 35.8%; Hispanic females 47.8%) than males (20.8%; White males 19.1%;
Black males 18.8%; Hispanic males 25.4%; Kann et al., 2014). Mood disorders are the third
most common mental health condition experienced by students (Merikangas et al., 2010).
According to Merikangas et al. (2010), 8.4% of 13 to 14 year olds, 12.6% of 15 to 16 year
olds, and 15.4% of 17 to 18 year olds experience a major depressive disorder or a milder
form of the disorder. Depressive disorders are marked by the presence of a sad, empty,
or irritable mood that is experienced along with cognitive and physical changes that sig-
nificantly affect a student’s ability to function (APA, 2013). There are several disorders in
the depressive disorder category including: disruptive mood dysregulation disorder (i.e.,
severe recurrent verbal or behavioral outbursts, along with a persistent irritable mood),
major depressive disorder (i.e., depressed mood; diminished pleasure in activities; physical
changes in sleep and activity levels; worthlessness and/or excessive inappropriate guilt; dif-
ficulty concentrating; and thoughts of death or suicide), persistent depressive disorder (i.e.,
dysthymia, a milder, yet impairing form of depression), and premenstrual dysphoric disor-
der (i.e., depressive symptoms presenting in the final week of the menstrual cycle, prior to
menses; APA, 2013). Depressive disorders can be life impairing and interfere significantly
with school performance.
There are a substantial number of students who are at risk for suicide. According to
the YRBSS, during the 12 months before the survey, 17.0% of high school students had
seriously considered attempting suicide (Kann et al., 2014). These rates vary by race, eth-
nicity, and gender, with females showing higher rates (22.4%; White females 21.1%; Black
females 18.6%; Hispanic females 26.0%) than males (11.6%; White males 11.4%; Black
males 10.2%; Hispanic males 11.5%; Kann et al., 2014). Up to 13.6% of students surveyed
had made a plan about how they would attempt suicide. According to the YRBSS, dur-
ing the 12 months before the survey, 8.0% of high school students had attempted suicide
(Kann et al., 2014).
School disengagement and dropout
Klem and Connell (2004) report that, by the time students reach high school, as many as
40% to 60% are chronically disengaged from school. To illustrate the pathway to dropout,
in a study of 1,272 youth as they aged from 7th to 11th grade, Wang and Fredricks (2014)