notes to pages 10–15 169
fear, it is likely to be a desired commodity in an anarchic system, where life is often
characterized as “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short.”
- While greater levels of self- esteem may be connected to increased confi-
dence and assertiveness (which can result in material gains), this indirect link is
not a necessary component of a subjective approach. Prestige may be desired even
in the absence of material returns simply because it feels grand to be prestigious. - See Offer 1997 , 451.
- O’Neill ( 1999 , 97 ) uses a similar formulation to define honor. He relies on
a quote from Peristiany ( 1966 , 21 ): “Honor is the value of a person in his own
eyes but also in the eyes of society. It is his estimation of his own worth, his claim
to pride, but also the acknowledgment of that claim, his excellence recognized by
society, his right to pride.” See Tajfel 1970 ; Fisher 1990 , 45 ; Mercer 1995 , 240. - See also Mercer 1995 , 241 – 43 ; Luhtanen and Crocker 1992.
- These postgames reactions occur in democracies as well. When Toronto
hosted the Pan- Am games in the summer of 2015 , pregames discussion of cost
overruns, traffic congestion, and public apathy were replaced by pride, public eu-
phoria, and a desire to host even bigger megasports events by the time of the clos-
ing ceremony (Pagliaro 2015 ). Similarly, the success of the 2004 Olympic Games
in Athens contributed to a sense of national pride and a strengthening of national
identity (Panagitopoulou 2014 ). - Threats to in- group cohesion play an important explanatory role for theo-
rists of diversionary wars (Levy 1989 ; Heldt 1997 ; Baker and Oneal 2001 ). More
recently, the ontological security literature has further developed a similar sub-
jective line of argumentation. According to this literature, actors often engage in
practices that risk their material security in order to protect a subjective sense of
identity (Mitzen 2006 ; Giddens 1991 ; Steele 2008 ; Kinnvall 2004 ). - On substitutability, see Most and Starr 1989 ; Starr 2000.
- For an evolutionary model of prestige, see Henrich and Gil- White 2001.
- Zahavi 1975 ; Zahavi and Zahavi 1997 ; Maynard Smith 1976 ; Grafen 1990 a,
1990 b; Gintis, Smith, and Bowles 2001. - E.g., Williamson 1983 ; Fearon 1994 a, 1994 b, 1997 ; Schultz 1998 ; Sartori
- This ritualistic aspect of turtle hunting occurs only during seasons in which
turtles are far from the shore. When turtles are bountiful, the hunting loses its ritu-
alistic significance. Only when there is a clear handicap do altruistic hunters gain
prestige. - Torch fishing, which produces only a quarter of the yield of regular fishing
methods, is carried out in a ritualistic manner. It confers prestige on those who
partake in the fishing expedition. - For more on Brazil’s purchase of an aircraft carrier, see the discussion in
the subsection on Brazil in the section “The Aircraft Carrier Club” in chapter 3
(pp. 71–73). See also “France Sells Aging Aircraft Carrier to Brazil” 2000.