committee and the news media. They believed that the Toyota spokespersons failed
“to show adequate remorse for those who had been killed in accidents involving
acceleration problems.”^70 At the core of these negative reactions was the perception
that the Toyota representatives failed to outwardly display any signs of emotion.
What the critics failed to realize is that many Asian cultures control and suppress
facial expressions. For example, it is not uncommon for Japanese, Chinese, and
Koreans to show restraint even when experiencing intense feelings (anger, irritation,
sadness, and love or happiness). Although the“rule”in many Asian cultures calls for
a degree of control and restraint with regard to outwardly displaying emotions, in
some cultures, such as those of the Mediterranean, facial expressions are animated
and exaggerated.^71 It is not uncommon in this region of the world to see men crying
in public.
We now move to yet another facial expression: the smile. While the smile is a
universal act and everyone is born knowing how to smile, it is also influenced by
culture. The stimulus that produces the smile—and even what the smile is
communicating—often shifts from culture to culture. In North America, a smile
usually sends a positive message and is often used as a greeting. The individual
who is smiling is typically perceived as happy or amused. However, as just noted,
culture can“influence smiling both by determining the interpretation of events,
which affects the cause of happiness, and by shaping display rules, which determine
when it is socially appropriate to smile.”^72
A few examples will illustrate the role culture plays in the use and interpretation of a
smile. Like North Americans, Thais are another people noted for their use of the smile.
In fact, Thailand has been called the“Land of Smiles,”and so common is the smile
that to an outsider, it seems to be the response to just about any situation. Therefore,
people from other cultures find it difficult to“read”the Thai smile, as it can be used to
display sadness, joy, embarrassment, fright, anxiety, and numerous other emotions. Viet-
namese also make use of the smile to represent phrases such as“Hello,”“Thank you,”
and“Iamsorry.”In Japan you can observe another culture where there are many mean-
ings associated with smiling. According to Nishiyama,“the Japanese may smile when
they feel embarrassed and laugh when they want to hide their anger.”^73 Smiling is
also used to denote acceptance of a command from a person of higher status.
There are many cultures where smiling is not a common or widely accepted non-
verbal action. In Korean culture too much smiling is often perceived as a sign of shal-
lowness. Dresser notes that the “lack of smiling by Koreans has often been
misinterpreted as a sign of hostility.”^74 Russians also suffer from the same misunder-
standing regarding their limited use of smiling. Russians are not exhibiting rudeness
or impoliteness by not smiling, but rather they are reflecting that culture’s“rules”
regarding when and to whom to smile. They are also distrustful of people who smile
at what they believe are inappropriate occasions. The same restrained attitude toward
smiling exists in Germany, where a smile“is used with far more discretion, generally
only with those persons one knows and really likes.”^75Eye Contact and Gaze
Making eye contact is one of the earliest and most powerful modes of communication
used by human beings and other primates. After touch, a newborn infant’s first“con-
tact”with the world is through the eyes. Eyes have always been a topic of fascination.
You can witness the potential communication component of eye contact when314 CHAPTER 9•Nonverbal Communication: The Messages of Action, Space, Time, and Silence
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