order to achieve a palliative solution. This is the dominant healthcare paradigm in
the United States and much of the developed world. Recently, however, the U.S.
medical profession has become more cognizant of the influence of the psychological
aspects of patient healthcare, and many Americans are also exploring alternative
medicines, such as acupuncture, massage therapy, folk remedies, and other measures.^57
Practitioners subscribing to the biomedical model consider a primary cause of ill-
ness to be pathogens—foreign agents (e.g., bacteria, viruses) that invade and disrupt
the body’s normal biophysical functions. Other causes of illness include such factors as
deterioration of skeletal structures or organs that can result from aging or malnutri-
tion; abnormal cell growth, such as occurs with cancer; deposits in the heart, such as
those formed from elevated levels of cholesterol; or genetically inherited disorders.
Scientific/biomedical treatment protocols, normally based on scientific studies and
research, are designed to destroy or remove the illness-causing agent, repair the
impaired body part, or control the affected body system. These approaches, dominant
in the United States and most Western nations, are based on the scientific principle
of cause and effect. A negative aspect of this approach is that“social, spiritual, and
psychological factors”often receive little attention.^58
The three medical paradigms discussed here offer an overview of contrasting per-
spectives on the cause and treatment of illness. A practitioner of one model can
expect challenges when faced with healthcare issues for patients who subscribe to a
different model, and culture can further exacerbate the difficulties. For instance, a
U.S. biomedical specialist confronted with a Chinese patient who refuses to take
medication for lower back pain may need to communicatively establish rapport to
determine if the individual prefers to pursue more holistic treatments, such as acu-
puncture or“cupping”(a traditional form of heat treatment).
Hopefully, the preceding has convinced you that culture plays a determining role
in how the causes and treatment of illnesses are viewed. We now move to an exami-
nation of how different cultures approach the prevention of illnesses.Illness Prevention Across Cultures
Just as culture has led to a variety of beliefs and practices related to the cause and
treatment of illness, methods to prevent illness also vary across cultures and in some
cases combine ideas from the different belief systems. In the United States, as well as
other highly technologically developed nations, the maintenance of good health is
based on the ideals of annual physical examinations, immunizations, exercise, good
nutrition, and other lifestyle regimens. Yet many people also adhere to healthcare
practices that include stress-reducing massage and meditation as well as the use of
herbal and probiotic supplements. In addition, they may employ preventive measures
with healthcare practices, such as chiropractic treatment, acupuncture, or even
colonic irrigation.
Some cultural groups believe that illness may be prevented by maintaining a“hot–
cold”balance. In this belief, diseases are thought to be the result of an imbalance
between hot and cold. Hot conditions are sustained by cold therapies, such as eating
foods classified as hot; cold conditions are maintained through the use of hot thera-
pies, such as consuming hot foods. As an example, someone of Mexican heritage
could classify a kidney problem as a hot condition and elect to eat large amounts of
fruits and vegetables, considered cold foods, to regain the hot–cold balance. People370 CHAPTER 10• Intercultural Communication in Contexts
Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).