ethnic jokes or slurs are spoken in jest or in order to feel like part of the in-group. In
addition to being self-mindful, it is important to make others mindful that you do not
use or tolerate prejudicial statements.Racism
Racism represents a shameful stain on the course of history and unfortunately con-
tinues even today. In modern U.S. history, Congress passed a law in 1924 severely
restricting immigration quotas for immigrants from eastern and southern European
nations while eliminating all quotas for Asian countries.^38 During World War II, Jap-
anese Americans living in the western states were relocated to concentration camps.
Segregation in the southern states denied African Americans equal access to public
facilities until the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Nazi Germany forced Jews to wear a yel-
low Star of David and ultimately instituted a program of mass extermination. Apart-
heid was official government policy in South Africa until 1994.
Despite the appalling record of the past, racism remains evident in contemporary
society. According to Vora and Vora,“Both blatant and very subtle forms of racism
permeate organizational and personal levels of our society, from governmental, busi-
ness and educational institutions to our everyday interactions.”^39 Events during the
summer of 2014 attest to the continuance of racial tensions in the United States.
Expressions of racism toward President Obama have a constant presence on the Inter-
net, in emails, and in online cartoons.^40 Nor is racism confined to the United States.
Minority groups around the world are subjected to racism simply because of their per-
ceived biological differences—usually their physical appearance—from the majority
group. There is growing resentment in Western Europe against immigrants from
Africa and South Asia; in western China, the Uyghur minority is harshly subordi-
nated to the Han majority; and Japan’s immigration policies are extremely restrictive.
While the underlying causes are many, at its core, racism is driven by“culture, eco-
nomics, psychology, and history.”^41
It is impossible to make a complete assessment of the consequences of racism
because the effects are both conscious and subconscious. However, we do know that
racism damages both those who are subjected to it and the racists themselves. Racism
denies the target individual(s) his or her identity and destroys the culture by eroding
social cohesion and creating divisions in the population. This occurs when a selected
group of people is excluded from access to society’s social, economic, and educational
institutions.Racism Defined
In many ways, racism is but an extension of stereotyping and prejudice, as brought out
in Leone’s classic definition:“Racism is the belief in the inherent superiority of a
particular race. It denies the basic quality of humankind and correlates ability with
physical composition. Thus, it assumes that success or failure in any societal endeavor
will depend upon genetic endowment rather than environment and access to
opportunity.”^42 The key phrase in this explanation is“inherent superiority.”This
false belief of superiority allows one group to mistreat another group on the basis of
race, color, ancestry, national origin, or other perceived difference. Racist thinking is
irrational because it is not only unethical and cruel but also founded on false premises.396 CHAPTER 11• The Challenges of Intercultural Communication: Managing Differences
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