The racial divide today 163compared with 12.7 deaths per 100,000 births for white women). Similar gaps also exist
for incidences of cancer, diabetes, strokes, and heart attacks in blacks and whites.^35
While social scientists continue to debate the causes of the racial disparities in health
outcomes, an increasing body of evidence indicates that at least some of the gap is caused
by government policies and business-related decisions. Broadly labeled “environmental
racism,” these practices mean that minority groups are much more likely to live in areas
affected by pollution, toxic waste, and hazardous chemical sites.^36 One of the most
extreme examples of this, uncovered in late 2015 and early 2016, involved the public
water supply in Flint, Michigan. In 2014, to save money, the city switched its water supply
from Lake Huron to the Flint River. Residents of the poor, majority-black city soon
reported discolored, foul-looking water, but their complaints were ignored by city and
state officials. Researchers demonstrated that levels of lead in the water far exceeded
safe levels, and 6,000 to 12,000 residents experiencing serious health issues were found
to have elevated levels of lead in their blood. President Obama declared the city a disaster
area and aid was provided in early 2016, but permanent damage had already been done.^37
Four officials were charged with felonies for their role in the crisis, and in 2017 a $722 million
class-action lawsuit was filed against the Environmental Protection Agency. Early in
2018 the Supreme Court allowed that case to move forward.^38Criminal Justice and Hate Crimes
The greatest disparity between racial minorities and whites may be in the criminal
justice system. Racial profiling subjects many innocent blacks to intrusive searches.^39
Tim Scott, a Republican African-American senator from South Carolina, said in a
speech on the Senate floor that he was pulled over by police officers seven times in
one year “for nothing more than driving a new car in the wrong neighborhood.” He
continued, “I do not know many African-American men who do not have a very similar
story to tell—no matter their profession, no matter their income, no matter their
disposition in life.”^40 As noted in the introduction, early in 2014, Bill de Blasio, the newly
elected mayor, said he would change the New York’s policing practices to comply with
a federal court ruling concerning the city’s aggressive “stop-and-frisk” policy.^41 Racial
bias is also evident in the criminal system after the initial arrest. Studies have shown
that blacks are more likely than whites to be convicted for the same crimes and are also
more likely to serve longer sentences.^42
Recently, tensions have been high between minority communities and the police in
the wake of dozens of cases of police shooting unarmed black men. In 2017, police killedThere have been dozens of high-
profile cases in recent years of police
shooting unarmed black men. Walter
Scott was killed by North Charleston,
South Carolina, police officer Michael
Slager following a traffic stop for a
broken brake light, inspiring protests
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