William_T._Bianco,_David_T._Canon]_American_Polit

Getting organized 353

Collective

Action

Problems

NUTS

& B O LT S

10.2

What is collective action?

“Collective action” refers to situations in which a

group of individuals can work together to provide

public goods. For example, working to help

change certain government policies can result in

public goods: if the government changes policy,

such as strengthening environmental laws,

everyone benefits from the cleaner air and water.

What are the problems?

Situations like those described above make

it hard to motivate people to contribute to

collective efforts to change a law, because

each would-be member can see that his or her

contribution would be only a minuscule portion

of what the group needs to succeed. Regardless

of how many other people join, an individual is

better off free riding—refusing to join but still

being able to enjoy the benefits of any successes

the group might have.

Why are collective action problems

important?

Groups of like-minded citizens who seek changes

in government policy may be unable to lobby

effectively because they cannot solve their

collective action problem. And organization

matters. Groups that remain unorganized are less

likely to get what they want from government.

How do interest groups solve collective

action problems?

Interest groups solve collective action problems

in three ways: (1) like some labor unions, they

force people to join; (2) they are small enough so

that every member’s voice matters and free rider

problems are lessened; and (3) they encourage

a larger, engaged membership by offering

incentives for people to join and participate.

a change in government policy desired by group members. Scholars refer to these

situations as involving collective action. Even when all members of a group agree on

the desirability of a public good and the costs of producing the good are negligible,

cooperation is neither easy nor automatic (see Nuts & Bolts 10.2).

The logic of collective action provides insights into how interest groups are

organized and how they make lobbying decisions. First, the logic of collective action

tells us that group formation is not automatic. Even when a number of citizens want

the same things from government, their common interest may not lead them to

organize. Society is full of groups of like-minded people (such as college students)

who do not organize to lobby or who choose to engage in free riding and thus enjoy the

benefits of organizations without participating. This tendency explains why certain

debates in Washington feature well-organized groups on one side of the issue but few

on the other.

Unless people can easily see benefits from participating, which does not happen

often, group leaders must worry about finding the right strategies to get people to join.

Thus, given the logic of collective action, motivating people to join and participate

is just as important for a group’s success as its lobbying strategy. Most organizations

develop mechanisms to make cooperation and participation in an interest group’s

efforts worthwhile. These selective incentives fall into three categories: benefits from

participation, coercion, and material goods.

Studies of political parties and interest groups find that some individuals

volunteer out of a sense of duty or because they enjoy working together toward a

common goal. Scholars refer to these benefits of participation as either solidary

benefits, which come from working with like-minded people, or purposive benefits,

which come from working to achieve a desired policy goal.^22 If most people were

spurred to political action because of participation benefits, the free rider problem

wou ldn’t ex ist.

When solidary or purposive benefits are not enough to solve the free rider problem,

groups may require participation through coercion. Consider labor unions. They

free riding

Relying on others to contribute to

a collective effort while failing to

participate on one’s own behalf, yet still

benefiting from the group’s successes.

selective incentives

Benefits that can motivate

participation in a group effort because

they are available only to those who

participate, such as member services

offered by interest groups.

solidary benefits

Satisfaction derived from the

experience of working with like-minded

people, even if the group’s efforts do

not achieve the desired impact.

purposive benefits

Satisfaction derived from the

experience of working toward a

desired policy goal, even if the goal is

not achieved.

coercion

A method of eliminating

nonparticipation or free riding by

potential group members by requiring

participation, as in many labor unions.

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