76 CHAPTER THREE ■ InternatIonal relatIons theorIes
meaning they incorporate all three
levels of analy sis. Yet each of the
theories is not as simple or as uni-
fied as presented. Many scholars
have introduced variations, modifi-
cations, and problematics, and they
have even changed positions over
time. Thus, each theoretical per-
spective is introduced here only
in terms of its essential character-
istics.realism (and neorealism)
Realism is the product of a long
historical and philosophical tradi-
tion, even though its direct appli-
cation to international affairs is
more recent. Realism reflects a
view of the individual as primarily
fearful and power seeking. States
act as individuals might, meaning
that each state acts in a unitary
way in pursuit of its own national
interest, defined in terms of
power. Power, in turn, is primarily
thought of in terms of the material
resources necessary to physically
harm or coerce other states: in
other words, to fight and win wars.
These states exist in an anarchic
international system, a character-
ization in which the term anarchy
highlights the absence of an author-
itative hierarchy (i.e., a single state
power ful enough to conquer all
other states). Under this condi-
tion of anarchy, realists argue that
states in the international systemB oX 3.1
Pos si ble explanations for the
United states’ Invasion of Iraq in
2003 by level of analy sisIndIvIdUal level- Saddam Hussein was an evil leader who
committed atrocities against his own
people and defied the West. - Saddam Hussein was irrational; other wise,
he would have capitulated to the superior
capability of the U.S. and British co ali tion. - George W. Bush and his advisers targeted
Saddam Hussein and Iraq in 2001.
s tate level- The United States must protect its national
security, and Iraq’s weapons of mass
destruction threatened U.S. security. - Ousting the Taliban from Af ghan i stan was
only the first step in the war on terrorism;
invading Iraq, a known supporter of
terrorism, was the second. - The United States must be assured of a
stable oil supply, and Iraq has the world’s
second largest reserves. - The United States must not permit states
that support terrorism or terrorist groups
access to destructive weapons. - It is in the U.S. national interest to build a
progressive Arab regime in the Middle East.
InternatIonal system level- UN resolutions condemning Iraq had to be
enforced to maintain the legitimacy of the
United Nations. - A unipolar international system is uniquely
capable of responding to perceived threats
to the stability of the system, and the U.S.
invasion was one manifestation of this
capability. - There is an international moral imperative
for humanitarian intervention—to oust evil
leaders and install demo cratic regimes.