The Exercise of State Power 155Second, bargaining and negotiating are, in part, a culture- bound activity.
Approaches to bargaining vary across cultures— a view accepted among liberals, who
place importance on state differences. At least two styles of negotiations have been
identified.^14 These two diff er ent styles may lead to contrasting outcomes. The more
advanced industrialized states, like the United States, Great Britain, and Germany,
favor discussion of concrete detail, eschewing grand philosophical debate, addressing
concrete prob lems, and resolving specific issues before broader princi ples are crystal-
lized. Other states, many in the developing world, argue in a deductive style— from
general princi ples to par tic u lar applications. This approach may mask conflict over
details until a later stage in the pro cess. These differences in negotiating approaches
can lead to stalemate or even, occasionally, negotiation failure.
The use of public diplomacy is an increasingly popu lar diplomatic technique in a
communication- linked world. Public diplomacy involves targeting both foreign pub-
lics and elites, attempting to create an overall image that enhances a country’s ability
to achieve its diplomatic objectives. For instance, as secretary of state, Hillary Rod-
ham Clinton traveled to more than 100 countries, highlighting the role of women and
promoting values, democracy, and human rights. China’s public diplomacy has used
Confucius Institutes to promote Chinese language and culture worldwide.
Before and during the 2003 Iraq War, public diplomacy became a particularly use-
ful diplomatic instrument. American administration officials not only made the case
for war to the American people in news interviews and newspaper op-ed pieces but
also lobbied friendly and opposing states, both directly in negotiations and indirectly
through vari ous media outlets, including in de pen dent Arab media such as the Qatar-
funded Al Jazeera tele vi sion network. The Department of State established the Middle
East Radio Network, comprising both Radio Sawa and Alhurra. Radio Sawa broad-
casts both Western and Middle Eastern popu lar music with periodic news briefs. The
more controversial Alhurra, begun in 2004, has attracted much of the Iraqi market,
and during the Arab Spring in Egypt, an estimated 25 percent of people living in
Cairo and Alexandria listened to this news source. Al Jazeera remains the number one
news source for an estimated 55 percent of the Arab world. States in the communica-
tion age clearly have another diplomatic instrument at their disposal, but whether
public diplomacy changes “hearts and minds” is debatable.
Celebrity diplomacy is another form of public diplomacy, but celebrity diplomacy
aims not only to influence the public but also to persuade decision makers. Celebrities like
Bob Geldof, Bono, Angelina Jolie, and George Clooney are able to use their media access
to support a par tic u lar cause, lobby for action, and speak directly to world leaders. No
celebrity has been as effective as George Clooney and his work on behalf of the people
of Darfur and South Sudan. Called a “21st- century statesman,” Clooney has become
an issue expert and privately funded a satellite to monitor military movements; he sees