Nongovernmental Organ izations 253flexibility to move staff rapidly depending on need, in de pen dent donor bases, and
links with grassroots groups that enable them to operate in diff er ent areas of the world.
This very flexibility enables them to create networks to increase their power potential,
banding together with other like- minded NGOs and forming co ali tions to promote
their respective agendas. New communication technologies have facilitated this net-
working and coalition- building source of NGO power.
NGOs have distinct advantages over individuals, states, and intergovernmental
organ izations. They are usually po liti cally in de pen dent from any sovereign state, so
they can make and execute international policy more rapidly and directly, and with
less risk to national sensitivities, than IGOs can. They can participate at all levels,
from policy formation and decision making to implementation, if they choose. Yet
they can also influence state be hav ior by initiating formal, legally binding action;
pressuring authorities to impose sanctions; carry ing out in de pen dent investigations;
and linking issues together in ways that force some mea sure of compliance. Thus, NGOs
are versatile and increasingly power ful actors, especially if they are able to network
with other NGOs.
The International Campaign to Ban Landmines (ICBL) is an outstanding example
of the power of an NGO network. Beginning in 1992, nine NGOs were eventually
joined by more than 1,000 other NGOs and local groups (such as the Landmine Sur-
vivors Network, Vietnam Veterans of Amer i ca Foundation, and Human Rights Watch)
in more than 60 countries. They used electronic media to craft the message that land
mines are a human rights issue and have devastating effects on innocent civilians. Not
only was the issue framed to resonate with a large constituency but the leaders also
formed a network. What became known as the Ottawa Pro cess was bolstered by the
death in 1997 of Diana, Princess of Wales, one of its vocal supporters. Jody Williams,
a founder of the ICBL and winner of the 1997 Nobel Peace Prize for her efforts, coor-
dinated the pro cess, and Canada’s foreign minister pushed the issue, hosted the confer-
ence, and provided financial support. The Convention to Ban Landmines was ratified
in 1999. But not every attempt to forge such networks has been successful, as illus-
trated by the failure of the movement to curb small arm sales— NGOs have limits.
the limits of ngos
NGOs often lack material forms of power. Except for some of the malevolent groups,
they do not have military or police forces as governments do, and thus, they cannot
command obedience through physical means.
Most NGOs have very limited economic resources because they do not collect
taxes, as states do. Thus, the competition for funding is fierce; NGOs that share the same
concerns— for example, human rights organ izations— often compete for the same
donors. They have a continuous need to raise money, leading some NGOs to find new