State and Subject tostressthatinlookingatrituals,cults,publicexpressionsofgratitude,the
erectionofstatues,andallthoseothervisibleformsofsymbolism,weshould
notaskwhatpeoplereallyfelt,becausewedonotknow(andinalmostall
casescannotinprincipleknow).SometwocenturiesafterAugustus’death,
Tertullian was to point out to the pagan world that all their loyalist ritu-
alsshowedpreciselynothingabouttheirrealfeelings;if(heimagines)their
heartswerecoveredwithsometransparentmaterial,youwouldbeableto
lookinand,justastheywereacclaimingoneemperor,youwouldseethe
image already formed there of his rival and successordistributing largesse
(Apol.,).Thereisnot,andcannotbe,anysuchprivilegedviewintothe
heartsofAugustus’subjects.Wecannotknoweitherthattheyfelt,orforthat
matterthattheydidnotfeel,thereverence,loyalty,andgratitudewhichthey
solavishlyexpressed.Butwecanstudythelogicoftheirpublicactions,and
oftheirwords,artefacts,andbuildings.
Or,tobemoreprecise,wecanstudythelogicofthesethingsprovided
boththatthecommunitiesconcerneddidoncespeak,act,orcreateartefacts
andthatthese,orsomereflectionsofthem,havesurvived.Equally,ifwetry
tolookattheactionsofAugustusortheSenateinordertoseehowthese
actions were represented by their subjects,we can onlydo so,once again,
bycourtesyof thosewhose perceptions have left some trace.The concep-
tionwegainisthusboundtobepartial.ButIwouldinsistthatinspeaking
ofperceptionsorrepresentationswearetalkingaboutanessentialaspectof
whattheRomanEmpire‘‘was.’’Firstly,theemergenceofasinglerulerfrom
withintheRomanrepublicansystemhadcreatedaconstitutionalsituation
which seems to us inherentlyambiguous.The symbols and words used in
theprovincestorepresentthenewsituationthusacquireaparticularimpor-
tance.Secondly,itwasbecausetheywereinternallyself-governingpolitical
communitiesthattheprovincialcitiescouldanddidrespondtochangesof
poweratthecentre.Theywerebothfree,andyetalsoobliged,tochoosethe
correctsymbolsandresponses,preciselybecausetheyweretypicallyneither
garrisonedbyRomantroopsnorsupervisedbyanyRomanofficialwhowas
permanentlypresentamongthem.Thecivilwarshadindeedmeantformany
placeswithintheEmpire,atleastatcertainmoments,thatRomanforcesand
officialsmightbepresentasanactive,violent,andoppressiveforce.Whether
ornottheirbrutalitiesandexactionshadanyseriouseconomiceffects,which
is not easy to say,^6 the ending of all that after Actium and the conquest of
Egyptwasamomentwhichdidnotpasswithoutnotice.Plutarch’sgreat-
. SeeF.Millar,‘‘TheMediterraneanandtheRomanRevolution:Politics,Warandthe
Economy,’’Past and Present():(chapterinthisvolume).