164 The Imperial Government
What follows is offered as no more than a few tentative steps towards
analysingtheconditionsunderwhichtheexternalpolicyoftheEmpirewas
formulated and put into effect in the fourcenturies between Actium and
Hadrianople.Theneedforsuchanapproachiswidelyrecognised,^12 andthe
themeisofconsiderablerelevancetoourunderstandingofthenatureofthe
Empire.Thediscussionwillbebasedonliteraryanddocumentaryevidence,
willhavetobehighlyselective,andwilldonojusticetothecomplexitiesof
particularcampaignsorthearchaeologyof individualfrontiers.Butitmay
servetoraisesomequestions,andtoemphasizethelimitsimposedonpolicy
anditsexecutionbyGraeco-Romanculture,thestructureofgovernment,
time, distance, and the conventions of diplomacy. No apology is made for
theuseofargumentsfromsilence.Wemustas a first steplistentowhatour
sources explicitly tell us and refrain from making assumptions as to what
theydonottellus.Ifwethenwishtoclaim(forinstance)thattheemperors
systematicallygatheredandstoredinformationfromtradersandothers,at
leastweshallknowthatthisisahypothesis.
TheAgentsofDecision
NoonewillarguethatthepopularassembliesinRomestillplayedanypart
inthedeclarationofwarorthemakingoftreaties.Noristhereanyreasonto
thinkthattheSenateactedasagenuinevehicleofdecisioninmilitaryorfor-
eignpolicymatters,inthesenseofbeingaforumofdebatewherecontrary
opinionswereexpressedandvotestaken.Thatsaid,however,theevidence
showsthatuptothemid-secondcenturyitcouldandoftendidplayatleast
aformalroleinmattersaffectingwars,‘‘client’’kings,andforeignrelations.
Itseemsindeedtohavelostthisroleatroughlythesametimeasitceasedto
receiveembassiesfromprovincialcommunities,aprocesswhichofcourse
alwaysretainedtheformalcharacterofdiplomatictraffic.^13
IntheearlyEmpiretheSenatemightbethesceneofthetrialsof‘‘client’’
- Fordiscussionsoftheseandcomparableproblems,seeforinstanceB.H.Warming-
ton, ‘‘Frontier Studies and the History of the Roman Empire—Some Desiderata,’’Actes
du IXeCongrès international d’études sur les frontières romaines, 1972(1974), 291; A. R. Birley,
‘‘RomanFrontiersandRomanFrontierPolicy:SomeReflectionsonRomanImperialism,’’
TransactionsoftheArchitecturalandArchaeologicalSocietyof DurhamandNorthumberland3(1974),
13; G. D. B. Jones, ‘‘Concept and Development in Roman Frontiers,’’Bulletin of the John
Rylands Library61 (1978): 115. See also Mann (n. 7), the essays in D. H. Miller and J. D.
Steffen,eds.,TheFrontier:ComparativeStudies(1978),andG.W.Bowersock,‘‘TheEmperor’s
Burden,’’Class. Philol.73(1978):346. - F.Millar,TheEmperorintheRomanWorld(1977;2nded.,1992),343(henceforthERW).