176 The Imperial Government
and hence of strategic and diplomatic initiative and responsibility. But in
fact,asisclear,theoppositedevelopmentoccurred,andtheemperorstended
toconcentratethedirectionofmilitaryaffairsmoreandmoredefinitelyin
theirownhands.Inthe370s,forinstance,wefindtheducesontheDanube
telling the Goths that theycannot let them cross the Danubewithout the
Emperor’spermission.^75 Valenshimself,onreceivingthenewsofthethreat
toThrace,sentemissariestosettletheArmenianquestionandhastenedback
fromthePersianfronttomeethisdeathatHadrianople.^76
Fromtheverybeginning,fromAugustus’warsinSpainin27–4b.c.on-
wards, the notion that direct militarycommand was an essential imperial
functionwaspresentandwasofgreatimportance.Butinthefirstcenturyit
wasstillpossible,astheoperationsofCorbuloinArmeniashow,formajor
campaigningtobeconductedintheabsenceoftheemperor.Subsequently
thatceasedtobeso,ineitheroffensiveordefensivewarfare,andtheconse-
quenceswereofthegreatestimportancefortheevolvingstructureof im-
perialrule.Whythisevolutiontookplaceisnotaquestionwhichallowsany
simpleanswer.Butsomefactorsareclear.Thefirstisthatthefactthatthe
Empirewas a monarchy was immediately noticed and acted upon by for-
eignkingsandrulers,someofthematimmensedistances.Therethusbegun
atoncethattrafficinembassies,fugitiveprinces,hostages,letters,gifts,and
(fromtheemperor)thebestowalofcrowns,whichwasoneoftheembodi-
mentsoftheemperor’ssupremacyandwastobeoneofthemostimportant
functionsoftheByzantineemperors.^77 Itisnecessarytostressthatthisvery
personalandmonarchicalelementisstronglyemphasizedintheactualsen-
tence structures of the relevant part of Augustus’Res Gestae:‘‘To mefrom
India... askingforourfriendship...to meassupplicantsthesefled...to me
theKingoftheParthians...from me...thepeoplesoftheParthiansandof
theMedes’’(AdmeexIndia...nostramamicitiamappetiverunt...admesupplices
confugerunt...admerexParthoru m...amegentesParthorumetMedorum)(31–33).
SeveralpassagesinStrabo’sGeographyofferconfirmationofAugustus’claims,
forinstancethatontheBritishchiefswhohadgainedthefriendshipofthe
emperorbyembassiesanddiplomacyandhadmadeofferingsontheCapi-
tol;^78 ortheembassyfromakinginIndiawhich(asStrabodescribes)Nico-
lausofDamascusencounteredinAntiochonitswaytoAugustus.Thethree
- Eunapius,Fr.42(FGHIV,p.31);cf.ZosimusIV,20,6.
- Ammianus31,7,1;11,1–2;12,1–4;ZosimusIV,21.
- See J. Gagé, ‘‘L’empereur romain et les rois: politique et protocole,’’Rev. Hist.221
(1959):22.
78.Geog.4,5,3(200).