Government and Diplomacy 225symbolicprocedure,forwhich,interestingly,theactualpresenceoftheem-
perorwasmoreandmoretosubstituteitself,isindeedattestedonvarious
occasionsinthefirstcentury.^40
Thelastmajoreasterncampaigntobeconductedbysenatorsfromout-
sidetheimperialhousebelongstothereignofNero(54–68).Asregardsthe
conduct of diplomacy, we find two senatorial governors in the East in 54
simultaneouslysending‘‘messengers’’(nuntii)towarnVologaesesofParthia
to keep the peace, provide hostages, and observe the previousreverentiaof
Parthian kings towards thepopulus Romanus.The messengers were in each
casemilitaryofficers,aprefectofacohortandacenturion(Tacitus,Annals
12, 9). Once again the absorption of diplomatic functions within a more
generalframeworkismadeclear.
Someyearslater,in62,whentheParthianslaunchedaninvasionofArme-
nia,where the Romans had installed their nominee as king,we again find
thegovernorofSyria,DomitiusCorbulo,sendingacenturionasambassa-
dor to upbraid the Parthian king for attacking a king allied to Rome and
theRomanauxiliaryunitswhichhadbeensenttosupporthim.Vologaeses
repliedthathewouldsendambassadorstoNero:theselaterreturnedempty-
handed (Tac.,Ann. 14, 5–7).When a Roman army was then forced to sue
forterms,theemissarysentbyitscommanderwasagainanauxiliaryoffi-
cer (15, 15).The retreat of the Roman forces from Armenia was followed
byaParthianembassytoNeroinRome,bringingaletterfromVologaeses,
ironicallystatingthathisownnomineeforthethroneofArmeniawouldbe
preparedtocometoRometoreceivethediadem,butthatreligiousprescrip-
tions prevented him (15, 24).Yet the great campaign into Armenia which
Corbulowas then ordered to conduct very rapidlyended in formal nego-
tiations between Corbulo and Vologaeses, conducted by emissaries (again
centurions on the Roman side), followed by a formal ceremony at which
Tiridates,astheParthiannomineeforthethroneofArmenia,laiddownhis
diadembeforeanimagoofNero(15,24–30),toreceiveitbackinRomethree
yearslater,atthegreatceremonyalreadymentioned.
Nosimilardelegationoftheconductofamajorcampaignoccurredlater.
WhenrelationswithParthiabrokedownagainunderTrajan,theEmperor
himselfwenttotheEast,andournarrativesshowanumberofminorkings
fromwithintheParthianEmpirepresentingthemselvesbeforehiminper-
son.Then after two reigns, those of Hadrian (117–38) and Antoninus Pius
- Suetonius,Cal. 14. For the use of the imperial image as the object of obeisance
by foreign rulers or emissaries, seeT. Pekáry,Das römische Kaiserbildnis in Staat, Kult und
Gesellschaft(Berlin,1985),54–55.