Cognition: Thinking, Intelligence, and Language 307Chapter Summary
How People Think
- Thinking (cognition) is mental activity that occurs in the brain
when information is being organized, stored, communicated, or
processed.
- 1 Explain how mental images are involved in the
process of thinking.
- Mental images represent objects or events and have a picture-like
quality.
- 2 Describe how concepts and prototypes influence our
thinking.
- Concepts are ideas that represent a class or category of events,
objects, or activities. - Prototypes are examples of a concept that more closely match the
defining characteristics of that concept.
- 3 Identify some methods that people use to solve
problems and make decisions.
- Problem solving consists of thinking and behaving in certain
ways to reach a goal. - Mechanical solutions include trial-and-error learning and rote
solutions. - Algorithms are a type of rote solution in which one follows step-
by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems. - A heuristic or “rule of thumb” is a strategy that narrows down
the possible solutions for a problem. - Insight is the sudden perception of a solution to a problem.
- 4 Identify three common barriers to successful
problem solving.
- Functional fixedness is the tendency to perceive objects as hav-
ing only the use for which they were originally intended and,
therefore, failing to see them as possible tools for solving other
problems. - Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for evidence that con-
firms one’s beliefs, ignoring any evidence to the contrary.
- 5 Recall some characteristics of creative, divergent
thinking.
- Divergent thinking involves coming up with as many different
answers as possible. This is a kind of creativity (combining ideas
or behavior in new ways). - Creative people are usually good at mental imagery and have
knowledge on a wide range of topics, are unafraid to be different,
value their independence, and are often unconventional in their
work but not in other areas.
Intelligence
- 6 Compare and contrast different theories on the
nature of intelligence.
- Intelligence is the ability to understand the world, think ratio-
nally or logically, and use resources effectively when faced with
challenges or problems.- Spearman proposed general intelligence, or g factor, as the abil-
ity to reason and solve problems, whereas specific intelligence,
or s factor, includes task-specific abilities in certain areas such as
music, business, or art. - Gardner proposed nine different types of intelligence, ranging
from verbal, linguistic, and mathematical to interpersonal and
intrapersonal intelligence. - Sternberg proposed three types of intelligence: analytical, cre-
ative, and practical. - The Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Theory of Intelligence includes
general intelligence, or g, 16 broad abilities, and many narrow
abilities within each broad area. - Specific brain areas and brain functions have been tied to differ-
ences in intellectual ability, with some research indicating the
frontal and parietal areas playing the most important roles.
7. 7 Compare and contrast some methods of measuring
intelligence.
- The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test yields an IQ score that
was once determined by dividing the mental age of the person
by the chronological age and multiplying that quotient by 100
but now involves comparing a person’s score to a standard-
ized norm.
- The Wechsler Intelligence Tests yield four index scores derived
from both verbal and nonverbal subtests and an overall score of
intelligence.
7. 8 Identify ways to evaluate the quality of a test.
- Standardization, validity, and reliability are all important factors
in the construction of an intelligence test.
- Deviation IQs are based on the normal curve, defining different
levels of intelligence based on the deviation of scores from a com-
mon mean.
- IQ tests are often criticized for being culturally biased.
- Neuropsychologists play an important role in the care of individ-
uals with traumatic brain injury and other conditions in which
brain functioning has been negatively impacted.
- Concussion, or mild traumatic brain injury, affects the lives of
many athletes and military personnel.
7. 9 Define intellectual disability, giftedness, and
emotional intelligence.
- Intellectual disability is a neurodevelopmental condition in
which IQ falls below 70 and adaptive behavior across concep-
tual, social, and practical domains of life is severely deficient for
a person of a particular chronological age. Symptoms must also
first be present during the developmental period.
- The four levels of intellectual disability are mild, moderate,
severe, and profound. These are determined by the level of adap-
tive functioning and level of supports the individual needs in
their daily life.
- Causes of intellectual disability include deprived environ-
ments as well as chromosome and genetic disorders and dietary
deficiencies.
- Spearman proposed general intelligence, or g factor, as the abil-