Development across the Life Span 347this theory, the body’s organs and cell tissues simply wear out with repeated use and
abuse. Damaged tissues accumulate and produce the effects of aging. Collagen, for
example, is a natural elastic tissue that allows the skin to be flexible. As people age, the
collagen “wears out,” becoming less and less “stretchy” and allowing skin to sag and
wrinkle (Cua et al., 1990; Kligman & Balin, 1989). (This process is not unlike what hap-
pens to the elastic in the waistband of one’s underwear over time.)
FREE-RADICAL THEORY The free-radical theory is actually the latest version of the
wear-and-tear theory in that it gives a biological explanation for the damage done to
cells over time. Free radicals are oxygen molecules that have an unstable electron (neg-
ative particle). They bounce around the cell, stealing electrons from other molecules
and increasing the damage to structures inside the cell. As people get older, more and
more free radicals do more and more damage, producing the effects of aging (Hauck &
Bartke, 2001; Knight, 1998).
I’ve heard that most older people just want to be left alone and
have some peace and quiet. Is that true?ACTIVITY THEORY Activity theory (Havighurst et al., 1968) proposes that an elderly
person adjusts more positively to aging when remaining active in some way. Even if a
career must end, there are other ways to stay active and involved in life. Elderly people
who volunteer at hospitals or schools, those who take up new hobbies or throw them-
selves full time into old ones, and those who maintain their friendships with others
and continue to have social activities have been shown to be happier and live longer
than those who withdraw themselves from activity. Contrary to the view of the elderly
as voluntarily withdrawing from activities, the withdrawal of many elderly people is
not voluntary at all; their lack of involvement is often because others simply stop invit-
ing elderly people to social activities and including them in their lives.
Stages of Death and Dying
8.16 Describe Kübler-Ross’s theory of death and dying, and identify some
criticisms of this theory.
There are several ways of looking at the process of dying. One of the more well-known
theories is that of Elisabeth Kübler-Ross (Kübler-Ross, 1997), who conducted extensive
interviews with dying persons and their caregivers.
Elisabeth Kübler-Ross theorized that people go through five stages of reaction
when faced with death (Backer et al., 1994; Kübler-Ross, 1997). These stages are denial,
in which people refuse to believe that the diagnosis of death is real; anger, which is really
anger at death itself and the feelings of helplessness to change things; bargaining, in which
the dying person tries to make a deal with doctors or even with God; depression, which
is sadness from losses already experienced (e.g., loss of a job or one’s dignity) and those
yet to come (e.g., not being able to see a child grow up); and finally acceptance, when the
person has accepted the inevitable* and quietly awaits death.
Obviously, some people do not have time to go through all of these stages or even
go through them in the listed order (Schneidman, 1983, 1994). Some theorists do not
agree with the stage idea, seeing the process of dying as a series of ups and downs, with
hope on the rise at times and then falling, to be replaced by a rise in despair or disbelief
(Corr, 1993; Maciejewski et al., 2007; Schneidman, 1983, 1994; Weisman, 1972). Still oth-
ers question the idea of common reactions among dying people, stating that the partic-
ular disease or condition and its treatment, the person’s personality before the terminal
One way to age successfully and maintain
psychological health is to remain active and
involved in life. This man is volunteering with
grade-school students as a teacher’s aide.
This not only allows him to feel useful but
also helps him to stay mentally alert and
socially involved.*inevitable: something that cannot be avoided or escaped.
activity theory
theory of adLustment to aging that
assumes older ReoRle are haRRier if
they remain active in some way such
as volunteering or develoRing a hoDDy.