366 CHAPTER 9
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instinct
drive reduction
intrinsic: actions are rewarding or satisfying in and of themselves
extrinsic: actions are performed because they lead to some sort of external outcome
biologically determined/innate patterns of behavior
old approach: instincts are mainly descriptions, not explanations;
idea that some behavior is hereditary remains an important focus
psychological needs have
been highlighted in some
theories (e.g., McClelland)
Dweck suggests that the need for achievement
is linked to a person’s view of self (fixed or
changeable) and locus of control
need: requirement for something essential for survival; existence of need leads to
psychological tension (drive) and physical arousal; satisfying need reduces drive/tension
primary drives involve survival needs (e.g., hunger, thirst) and maintaining homeostasis
acquired (secondary) drives are learned through experience or conditioning
(e.g., money, social approval)
psychological needs
need for achievement (nAch)
need for affiliation (nAff)
need for power (nPow)
types
Approaches to Understanding Motivation
(process by which activities are started, directed, and continued so that physical or psychological needs or wants are met)
arousal theory suggests people have an optimal
level of tension that they work to maintain
a moderate level is most commonly sought, but that level
can range from low to high (sensation seeking)
arousal
need for stimulation
incentive based in part on principles of learning
things that attract or lure people
into action, most often due to
rewarding properties
other modifications differ in number of levels
and areas of focus
self-determination theory: similar to Maslow’s hierarchy;
three universal needs are autonomy, competence, and relatedness
humanistic
based primarily on Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs; primary,
basic needs must be met before
higher levels can be met (see Fig. 9.3)
Concept Map L.O. 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5
Interactive
There are usually elements of both intrinsic and extrinsic motives in many of the things
people do. Most teachers, for example, work for money to pay bills (the extrinsic
motive) but may also feel that they are helping young children become better adults in
the future, which makes the teachers feel good about themselves (the intrinsic motive).
How universal are these three needs? Some cultures, such as the United States and
Great Britain, are individualistic, stressing the needs of the individual over the group, inde-
pendence, and self-reliance. Other cultures are collectivistic, such as those in Japan and
China, and stress strong social ties, interdependence, and cooperation. Cross- cultural
research indicates that even across such different cultures, the needs for autonomy, mastery,
and belongingness are of similar importance (Chirkov, 2009; Chirkov et al., 2011; Ryan et
al., 1999; Sheldon, 2012). The APA Goal 2: Scientific Inquiry and Critical Thinking feature
looks at the effects of praise, a typical form of motivating achievement, across cultures.