Stress and Health 443emotional health, more pain, less ability to take part in social activities, and
less energy than optimists. The optimists had a 50 percent lower risk of pre-
mature death and were more calm, peaceful, and happy than the pessimists
(Maruta et al., 2002). Other studies link being optimistic to higher levels of
helper T cells (immune system cells that direct and increase the functioning of
the immune system) and higher levels of natural killer cells, the body’s antivi-
rus and anticancer cells (Segerstrom et al., 1998; Segerstrom & Sephton, 2010;
Sin et al., 2015). Martin Seligman is a social learning psychologist who devel-
oped the concept of learned helplessness, to Learning Objective 5.12,
and began the positive psychology movement. Seligman (2002) has outlined
four ways in which optimism may affect how long a person lives:
- Optimists are less likely to develop learned helplessness, the tendency
to stop trying to achieve a goal that has been blocked in the past. - Optimists are more likely than pessimists to take care of their health by
preventive measures (such as going to the doctor regularly, eating right,
and exercising) because they believe that their actions make a difference
in what happens to them. (Remember, this is a characteristic of hardy
people as well.) - Optimists are far less likely than pessimists to become depressed, and depression
is associated with mortality because of the effect of depression on the immune
system. - Optimists have more effectively functioning immune systems than pessimists do,
perhaps because they experience less psychological stress.
Seligman (1998) has also found that optimists are more successful in their life
endeavors than pessimists are. Optimistic politicians win more elections, optimistic stu-
dents get better grades, and optimistic athletes win more contests. For some advice on how
to become more optimistic, see the Applying Psychology feature at the end of this chapter.
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL FACTORS IN STRESS: PEOPLE WHO NEED PEOPLE
11.9 Identify social and cultural factors that influence stress reactions.
As stated earlier, much of the stress in everyday life comes from having to deal with other
people and with the rules of social interaction. Overcrowding, for example, is a common
source of stress. Overcrowding on our roadways, or traffic congestion, is one factor in
aggressive driving behavior, which may escalate, or trigger in someone else, a dispropor-
tionate response or even road rage (AAA Foundation, 2009; Jeon et al., 2014).
Road rage is a criminal act of assault by drivers against other drivers, which
can result in serious injuries or even death. Two of the more prominent social
factors in creating stressful living conditions are both economically based—
poverty and job stress—while the third factor we will discuss has to do with
the culture within which we live, work, and play.
POVERTY Living in poverty is stressful for many reasons. Lack of sufficient
money to provide the basic necessities of life can lead to many stressors for
both adults and children: overcrowding, lack of medical care, increased
rates of disabilities due to poor prenatal care, noisy environments, increased
rates of illness (such as asthma in childhood) and violence, and substance
abuse (Aligne et al., 2000; Bracey, 1997; Evans & Kim, 2013; Leroy & Symes,
2001; Park et al., 2002; Renchler, 1993; Rouse, 1998; Schmitz et al., 2001).
JOB STRESS Even if a person has a job and is making an adequate salary,
there are stresses associated with the workplace that add to daily stressors.
Some of the typical sources of stress in the workplace include the workload,
Regular exercise—whether alone or in the company of family
and friends—increases the functioning of the immune system
and helps give people a sense of control over their health.
Having a sense of control decreases feelings of stress, which
also helps the immune system function well.Poverty can lead to many conditions that increase the
degree of stress experienced by both adults and children.
These children, for example, may face an increased risk of
malnutrition, illness, and exposure to violence because of the
conditions under which they must live.