486 CHAPTER 12
to the effect that a person’s knowledge of another’s stereotyped opinions can have
on that person’s behavior (Osborne, 2007; Steele, 1992, 1997). Research has shown
that when people are aware of stereotypes that are normally applied to their own
group by others, they may feel anxious about behaving in ways that might support
that stereotype. This fear results in anxiety and self-consciousness that have nega-
tive effects on their performance in a kind of self-fulfilling prophecy, or the effect
that expectations can have on outcomes.
Stereotype vulnerability is highly related to stereotype threat, in which mem-
bers of a stereotyped group are made anxious and wary of any situation in which
their behavior might confirm a stereotype (Abdou et al., 2016; Hartley & Sutton,
2013; Hyde & Kling, 2001; Steele, 1999). ( to Learning Objective 7.10.)
In one study, researchers administered a difficult verbal test to both Caucasian
and African American participants (Steele & Aronson, 1995). Half of the African
American participants were asked to record their race on a demographic* ques-
tion before the test, making them very aware of their minority status. Those participants
showed a significant decrease in scores on the test when compared to the other partici-
pants, both African American and Caucasian, who did not answer such a demographic
question. They had more incorrect answers, had slower response times, answered fewer
questions, and demonstrated more anxiety when compared to the other participants
(Steele & Aronson, 1995).
Similar effects of stereotype threat on performance have been found in
women (Gonzales et al., 2002; Steele, 1997; Steele et al., 2002) and for athletes in
academic settings (Yopyk & Prentice, 2005). A recent study did find that some
people can overcome feelings of stereotype threat by identifying themselves
with a different social identity, such as a woman who identifies herself with
“college students” when taking a math exam rather than with “females,” since
the latter group is often stereotyped as being math deficient (Rydell & Boucher,
2010). This effect only held for those women with fairly high self- esteem,
however.
OVERCOMING PREJUDICE The best weapon against prejudice is education:
learning about people who are different from you in many ways. The best way
to learn about others is to have direct contact with them and to have the oppor-
tunity to see them as people rather than “as outsiders or strangers.” Intergroup
contact is very common in college settings, for example, where students and
faculty from many different backgrounds live, work, and study together.
Because they go through many of the same experiences (midterms, finals, and
so on), people from these diverse** backgrounds find common ground to start
building friendships and knowledge of each other’s cultural, ethnic, or reli-
gious differences.
EQUAL STATUS CONTACT Contact between social groups can backfire under
certain circumstances, however, as seen in a famous study (Sherif et al., 1961)
called the “Robber ’s Cave.” In this experiment conducted at a summer camp
called Robber ’s Cave, 22 white, well-adjusted, 11- and 12-year-old boys were
divided into two groups. The groups each lived in separate housing and were
kept apart from each other for daily activities. During the second week, after
in-group relationships had formed, the researchers scheduled highly compet-
itive events pitting one group against the other. Intergroup conflict quickly
occurred, with name-calling, fights, and hostility emerging between the two
groups.Social comparison involves comparing yourself to others
so that your self-esteem is protected. What do you think
each of these young girls might be thinking?
*demographic: having to do with the statistical characteristics of a population.
**diverse: different, varied.self-fulfilling prophecy
the tendency of one’s expectations to
affect one’s behavior in such a way as
to make the expectations more likely
to occur.
Intergroup contact is one of the best ways to combat
prejudice. When people have an opportunity to work
together, as the students in this diverse classroom do,
they get to know each other on common ground. Can you
think of the first time you had direct contact with someone
who was different from you? How did that contact change
your viewpoint?