G-10 GLOSSARY
negative reinforcement the reinforcement of a response by the removal,
escape from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus.
negative symptoms symptoms of schizophrenia that are less than normal
behavior or an absence of normal behavior; poor attention, flat affect, and
poor speech production.
neo-Freudians followers of Freud who developed their own competing
psychodynamic theories.
nerves bundles of axons coated in myelin that travel together through the
body.
nervous system an extensive network of specialized cells that carries infor-
mation to and from all parts of the body.
neurofeedback form of biofeedback using brain-scanning devices to pro-
vide feedback about brain activity in an effort to modify behavior.
neuron the basic cell that makes up the nervous system and that receives
and sends messages within that system.
neuroplasticity the ability within the brain to constantly change both the
structure and function of many cells in response to experience or trauma.
neuropsychology area of psychology in which psychologists specialize in
the research or clinical implications of brain–behavior relationships.
neuroscience a branch of the life sciences that deals with the structure and
function of neurons, nerves, and nervous tissue.
neuroticism degree of emotional instability or stability.
neurotic personalities personalities typified by maladaptive ways of deal-
ing with relationships in Horney’s theory.
neurotransmitter chemical found in the synaptic vesicles that, when
released, has an effect on the next cell.
neutral stimulus (NS) in classical conditioning, a stimulus that has no
effect on the desired response prior to conditioning.
nicotine the active ingredient in tobacco.
nightmares bad dreams occurring during REM sleep.
night terrors relatively rare disorder in which the person experiences
extreme fear and screams or runs around during deep sleep without wak-
ing fully.
nondeclarative (implicit) memory type of long-term memory including
memory for skills, procedures, habits, and conditioned responses. These
memories are not conscious but are implied to exist because they affect
conscious behavior.
nondirective therapy style in which the therapist remains relatively neu-
tral and does not interpret or take direct actions with regard to the client,
instead remaining a calm, nonjudgmental listener while the client talks.
non-REM (NREM) sleep any of the stages of sleep that do not include REM.
normal curve a special frequency polygon, shaped like a bell, in which
the scores are symmetrically distributed around the mean, and the mean,
median, and mode are all located on the same point on the curve, with
scores decreasing as the curve extends from the mean.
nurture the influence of the environment on personality, physical growth,
intellectual growth, and social interactions.
obedience changing one’s behavior at the command of an authority figure.
objective introspection the process of examining and measuring one’s own
thoughts and mental activities.
object permanence the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not
in sight.
observational learning learning new behavior by watching a model per-
form that behavior.
observer bias tendency of observers to see what they expect to see.
observer effect tendency of people or animals to behave differently from
normal when they know they are being observed.obsessive-compulsive disorder disorder in which intruding, recurring
thoughts or obsessions create anxiety that is relieved by performing a
repetitive, ritualistic behavior or mental act (compulsion).
occipital lobe section of the brain located at the rear and bottom of each
cerebral hemisphere containing the primary visual centers of the brain.
Oedipus complex/Electra complex situation occurring in the phallic stage
in which a child develops a sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parent
and jealousy of the same-sex parent. Males develop an Oedipus complex,
whereas females develop an Electra complex.
olfaction (olfactory sense) the sensation of smell.
olfactory bulbs two bulb-like projections of the brain located just above the
sinus cavity and just below the frontal lobes that receive information from
the olfactory receptor cells.
openness one of the five factors; willingness to try new things and be open
to new experiences.
operant any behavior that is voluntary and not elicited by specific stimuli.
operant conditioning the learning of voluntary behavior through the
effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses.
operationalization specific description of a variable of interest that allows
it to be measured.
opiates a class of opium-related drugs that suppress the sensation of pain
by binding to and stimulating the nervous system’s natural receptor sites
for endorphins.
opium substance derived from the opium poppy from which all narcotic
drugs are derived.
opponent-process theory theory of color vision that proposes visual neu-
rons (or groups of neurons) are stimulated by light of one color and inhib-
ited by light of another color.
optimists people who expect positive outcomes.
oral stage the first stage in Freud’s psychosexual stages, occurring in the
first 18 months of life, in which the mouth is the erogenous zone and
weaning is the primary conflict.
orgasm a series of rhythmic contractions of the muscles of the vaginal walls
or the penis; also the third and shortest phase of sexual response.
out-groups social groups with whom a person does not identify; “them.”
ovaries the female gonads or sex glands.
overgeneralization distortion of thinking in which a person draws sweep-
ing conclusions based on only one incident or event and applies those
conclusions to events that are unrelated to the original; the tendency to
interpret a single negative event as a never-ending pattern of defeat and
failure.
overlap (interposition) monocular depth perception cue; the assumption
that an object that appears to be blocking part of another object is in front
of the second object and closer to the viewer.
ovum the female sex cell, or egg.
oxytocin hormone released by the posterior pituitary gland that is involved
in reproductive and parental behaviors.
pancreas endocrine gland; controls the levels of sugar in the blood.
panic attack sudden onset of intense panic in which multiple physical
symptoms of stress occur, often with feelings that one is dying.
panic disorder disorder in which panic attacks occur more than once or
repeatedly and cause persistent worry or changes in behavior.
parallel distributed processing (PDP) model a model of memory in which
memory processes are proposed to take place at the same time over a large
network of neural connections.
parasympathetic division (eat-drink-and-rest system) part of the ANS that
restores the body to normal functioning after arousal and is responsible
for the day-to-day functioning of the organs and glands.Z03_CICC7961_05_SE_GLOS.indd 10 9/3/16 12:59 AM