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of California, Berkeley, in 1965. The next

year, at Boston University, she proposed

that cells within nuclei had evolved

as a result of the symbiotic merger

of bacteria. This idea, although not

generally accepted until the 1980s,

transformed the understanding of

cell evolution.

See also: The Gaia hypothesis 214–217

PAUL F. HOFFMAN

1941–

Canadian scientist Paul Hoffman’s

discovery of “cap carbonates”—evidence

for ancient glaciation in Precambrian

sedimentary rocks in Namibia—revived

the “Snowball Earth” hypothesis in

climate change studies in 2000. The

term was first used by American

geologist Joseph Kirschvink in 1992,

although there had been speculation

since the late 19th century that Earth’s

surface was almost entirely frozen more

than 650 million years ago.

See also: Ancient ice ages 198–199

SIMON A. LEVIN

1941–

Levin, an American ecologist, specializes

in the use of sophisticated mathematical

modeling, alongside field and lab

observation, to understand the workings

of ecosystems. He also researches the

relationships between ecology and

economics. Levin earned a Ph.D.

in mathematics from the University

of Maryland in 1964 and taught at

Cornell University from 1965 to 1992.

After moving to Princeton, he was

appointed director of the university’s

Center for BioComplexity, which

investigates the mechanisms that

generate and maintain complexity

in the living world.

See also: Predator–prey equations 44–49

JAMES A. YORKE

1941–

An American mathematician and

physicist based at the University of

Maryland, Yorke is best known for his

work on chaos theory. In his 1975 paper

“Period Three Implies Chaos,” written

with Chinese mathematician Tien-Yien

Li, he argued that above a certain rate

of growth, population forecasts become

totally unpredictable, a discovery with

major ecological implications.

See also: Population viability analysis

312–315

IAN LOWE

1942–

Lowe, an Australian environmentalist

who studied engineering and science at

the University of New South Wales and

earned his Ph.D. in physics at the

University of York, advises the UN’s

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change. He is outspoken on the need

for renewable energy, arguing that it

is “quicker, less expensive, and less

dangerous than nuclear power.” In

1996, Lowe chaired the expert group

responsible for the first report on the

state of Australia’s environment. Lowe

is now Emeritus Professor of Science,

Technology, and Society at Griffith

University, Brisbane.

See also: Renewable energy 300–305

■ Halting climate change 316–321

AILA KETO

1943–

Keto spent much of her youth exploring

the Great Barrier Reef and surrounding

rain forests. She studied biochemistry

and went on to work at the University

of Queensland. In 1982, with her

husband Keith, she founded the

Australian Rain forest Conservation

Society, which did much to save

Australia’s Wet Tropics area.

See also: Biomes 206–209

BOB BROWN

1944–

After studying medicine at the

University of Sydney, Brown practiced

in Australia and the UK. He moved to

Tasmania in 1972 and soon became

involved in the environmental

movement. In the early 1980s, he was

one of the leaders of a successful

campaign to prevent the building of

the Franklin Dam, which would have

destroyed key habitats. In 1996, Brown

was elected to the Australian Senate as

a Green Party representative. On

retirement in 2012, he set up the Bob

Brown Foundation to campaign for the

protection of Australian habitats.

See also: The water crisis 288–291

BIRUTE GALDIKAS

1946–

German-born anthropologist and

primatologist Galdikas has pioneered

the study of orangutans in the wild.

Along with Jane Goodall and Dian

Fossey, she was one of “The Trimates,”

chosen by Louis Leakey to study great

apes. Leakey persuaded her to support

the establishment of an orangutan

research station in Borneo, to which she

moved in 1971. For more than 30 years,

Galdikas studied the great apes,

advocated protection for them and their

rain forest habitat, and undertook the

rehabilitation of orphaned orangutans.

See also: Animal behavior 116–117

BRIAN A. MAURER

1954–2018

Maurer’s 1989 paper “Macroecology:

The Division of Food and Space Among

Species on Continents”—written with

James H. Brown—was the first clear

articulation of the idea that there is value

in studying ecological patterns and

processes over large areas and long time

frames. In his last years he researched

the dynamics of the spread of exotic birds

and species diversity among mountain-

dwelling mammals in North America.

See also: Macroecology 185

NANCY GRIMM

1955–

Based at Arizona State University,

Grimm is a climate change ecologist

and sustainability scientist, whose

research concentrates on the

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