ecosystems cont.
evolutionarily stable strategy (ESS) 131,
154–155
experimental 157
external disturbances 136–137
feedback loops 136, 217, 224–225
guilds 161, 176 –177
holistic concept 175, 210–211
keystone species 43, 60–65, 109, 130, 142
mutualism 42, 43, 56–59, 100, 104, 105, 157
resilience 131, 137, 150–151
techno-ecosystems 137
see also biodiversity; competition; ecological
niches; food chains; food webs; predators
and prey
ecozones 209
ectotherms 126, 222
Eden Project, UK 137
eggs
birds 114 –115
clutch size 101, 114 –115
turtles 253
Egler, Frank 173
Egyptians, ancient 82
Ehrlich, Paul 56, 59, 134, 250
electron microscopy 81, 85, 90
electronic waste (e-waste) 331
elephants 22, 62, 64, 109, 139
elk 65, 110
Elliott, Christopher 173
Elser, James 43, 74, 75
Elton, Charles 50, 51, 100, 108, 109, 110–111,
112, 130, 132, 270, 272
empathy 125
endangered species 93, 95, 312
endotherms 126, 222
energy
biomass energy 305
energy flow through ecosystems 134,
138–139
energy transfer 113, 136
Enlightenment 20, 298
environmentalism 294–331
early history of 296–299
environmental ethics 306–307
Green Movement 297, 299, 308–309
halting climate change 316–321
Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB)
310–311
renewable energy 300–305
Sustainable Biosphere Initiative (SBI)
322–325
waste disposal 330–331
epidemics 71
epiphytes 169, 169
Esmark, Jens 198
essentialism 18, 20
ethology 101, 116 –125
animal models and human behavior 101,
118 –125
eukaryotes 90, 91
eusocial species 39
eutrophication 151evolutionarily stable strategy (ESS) 131, 154–155
evolutionary theory 16–39
coevolution 56, 59
convergent evolution 209
early theories 20–21
heredity 18, 19, 20, 21, 26, 28, 32–33
kin selection 19, 29, 39
natural selection 18–19, 21, 22, 24–31, 38, 66, 72,
81, 154
Red Queen theory 46, 49
see also DNA; genetics
extinction 22 , 81, 92–93, 95, 96, 143
current rate of 92–93
extinction risk assessment 312–315
extirpation 93, 95
Holocene extinction 223
island species 147, 148
K-Pg extinction event 221–222
mass extinctions 22, 218–223
“the Great Dying” 223F
facultative siblicide 115
Faraday, Michael 233
Farman, Joe 260–261
feedback loops 136, 217, 224–225
fermentation process 102, 103
fertilizers 327
runoff 151, 234, 239, 269
field manipulation experiments 63
fieldwork 43, 54–55, 116–117
fig trees 65
fig wasps 58
finches 27, 27 , 110, 193
fireflies 89
fires 137, 171, 318, 318
Fisher, Ronald 19, 29, 30, 114
fishing
fish farming 269
harmful practices 207, 238
moratoriums and quotas 267, 268
overfishing 93, 150, 207, 229, 250, 266–269
fishing cats 97
fixed action patterns (FAPs) 116–117
Flannery, Tim 339
fleas 112
Fleming, Alexander 102, 103
flight, insects 126–127
flooding 238, 239, 258, 277
food chains 69, 75, 94, 108, 130, 132–133, 277
DDT biomagnification 246
ecological pyramids 112, 112
producers and consumers 112, 132–133, 139,
277, 279
food limitation hypothesis 115
food webs 108, 108 , 109, 133, 138, 140, 141, 142
Forbes, James 199
Forbes, Stephen A. 160, 166forests see deforestation; rain forests
Fossey, Dian 336–337
fossil fuels 93, 203, 217, 225, 240, 263, 302,
319
fossils 18, 20, 21 , 22, 23, 26, 30–31, 105, 196,
212, 212 , 213
Fourier, Joseph 203, 299
foxes 132, 225 , 315
fracking 304
Frank, Albert 100, 104, 105
Franklin, Rosalind 19, 35
Friends of the Earth 297, 308
Frisch, Karl von 116, 123
Fritts, Charles 302
frogs 109, 280
fruit bats 155
fruit flies 75, 164–165, 165
fungal diseases 280
fungi 58, 70, 91, 91 , 100, 136, 139, 222, 278
mycorrhizae 104–105, 104, 105G
Gaia hypothesis 197, 210, 214–217
Galdikas, Birute 338
game theory 154, 155
garlic mustard 272–273, 273
Gaston, Kevin 185
Gause, Georgy 42–43, 52–53, 112, 190
Gause’s Law 52–53, 112
gazelles 47 , 73
genetically modified food 36, 36
genetically modified organisms (GMOs) 36
genetics 19, 29, 154
gene mapping 123
gene selfishness 38–39
gene therapy 19, 35
genetic drift 81
genetic engineering 35, 296
genetic markers 123
heredity 18, 19, 20, 21, 26, 28, 32–33
human genome 19, 34, 37, 123
see also DNA
geothermal energy 91, 304
germ theory of disease 70, 102, 103
Gessner, Conrad 80, 82, 83
giant pandas 51, 51
Gillespie, Rosemary 339
giraffes 18, 21
glaciation 198–199
glaciers 198, 199, 199 , 203
Gleason, Henry 152, 161, 171, 172, 174–175
Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF)
180, 183
global warming 185, 202–203, 207, 223, 224,
268–269, 276, 281, 318, 319
goldfinches 181
Gondwana 213, 222, 223
Goodall, Jane 101, 120–122, 121 , 122 , 124, 125346 INDEX
US_344-351_Index.indd 346 17/12/2018 14:34