HERBERT SPENCER
1820–1903
British sociologist and philosopher
Herbert Spencer was one of the
earliest evolutionary theorists. He
coined the phrase “the survival
of the fittest,” and suggested
that societies follow the same
evolutionary principles as the
human body: they change naturally,
evolving from simple states to
highly complex forms, and only
the stronger societies survive
and grow. This view became
known as “social Darwinism.”
See also: Harriet Martineau 26–27
■ Karl Marx 28–31
CHARLES H. COOLEY
1864–1929
Charles Horton Cooley, from
Michigan, developed the theory of
the “looking-glass self,” which
claims that our sense of identity
develops mainly from a sense of
how we are perceived by others,
and therefore through social
interactions. The concept formed
and Ernst Bloch at the Frankfurter
Zeitung newspaper as film
and literature editor and began
analyzing society’s cultural
artifacts, from advertising to
films. In 1933, he fled from the
Nazi threat, first to Paris and then
the US. Kracauer was a major
influence on Theodor W. Adorno.
See also: Walter Benjamin 334 ■
Theodor W. Adorno 335WALTER BENJAMIN
1892–1940Born in Berlin, Walter Benjamin
became a well-known cultural
theorist. He was awarded a PhD
in literature from the University
of Berne, Switzerland, in 1919. He
returned to Germany, but fled from
the Nazis in 1933. While in exile,
he contributed articles on art and
culture to the Institute for Social
Research in Frankfurt. In 1939 he
was interned in a camp in France,
and after his release tried to flee to
Spain across the Pyrenees. When
refused entry, he took his own life.
See also: Jürgen Habermas
286–87 ■ Siegfried Kracauer 334DIRECTORY
A
lthough sociology was recognized only relatively recently as
a social science, its roots go back to the ancient philosophers,
such as Plato, who reflected on the “ideal” society. Its main
themes have long been of interest to rulers, who had much to gain from
understanding the ways in which people form large groups (societies), and
how they distribute information, cultural values, wealth, and power. Social
reformers realized that such theories could be used to change society, and
their voices became ever louder as sociology came of age as a “science.”
Leaders in the field have been described already in the main part of
the book; this section includes other thinkers who have also made key
contributions to the discipline and to our understanding of social life.the basis for the sociological theory
of “socialization.”
See also: G.H. Mead 176–77 ■
Erving Goffman 190–95ROBERT E. PARK
1864–1944Robert E. Park, a US sociologist,
is widely recognized for his work on
collective behavior, race relations,
and “human ecology” (the idea that
humans function similarly to plants
and animals). His approach to
urban sociology—treating the city
as a “research laboratory”—was a
hallmark of what became known
as the Chicago School of sociology.
See also: Georg Simmel 104–05 ■
G.H. Mead 176–77SIEGFRIED KRACAUER
1889–1966Born in Frankfurt, Germany,
Siegfried Kracauer is best known
for his theories on modern culture
and his idea that technology
threatens to supersede memory.
Kracauer joined Walter Benjamin334