esoteric buddhism at the crossroads 251
changed dramatically, and many studies have appeared in recent years partly
redressing this oversight.5 Nevertheless, we are still largely in the dark as to
how the local developments came about and to what extent they relate to the
developments in the Central provinces, since many of the features they char-
acterising Esoteric Buddhism at Dunhuang differ on a number of significant
points from that which developed in the heartlands of China during the late
medieval period.
By way of a number of representative examples, this presentation will inves-
tigate how Esoteric Buddhism was shaped and transformed at Dunhuang from
the second half of the Tang and up to the advent of the Tanguts in the region
during the first half of the 11th century. Given the abundant primary sources, it
is not possible to go into too great detail with regard to the relevant scriptural
sources, in particular the numerous ritual texts, and their relationship with sali-
ent iconographic motifs and the relevant religious art. Hence, in what follows
I shall primarily seek to identify the various strands which made up Esoteric
Buddhism at Dunhuang and the manner in which they became intertwined
and transformed through sustained intercultural contacts and exchanges
which lasted more than three centuries. Since it is obvious that paintings and
images form part and parcel of Esoteric Buddhist practice, in particular ritual
practices, I will treat religious art and texts together rather than dividing my
discussion into textual and art historical segments. I hope that the reader will
bear with me for this digression.
1 Conceptual and Contextual Issues
Before setting out to define what Esoteric Buddhism in the context of Dunhuang
entailed, we first need to be precise about the usage of certain terms and desig-
nators in this regard. Let us therefore begin our investigation by looking more
Unfortunately, poor texts and a general confusion as to what entails Esoteric Buddhism/
Vajrayāna, etc., greatly invalidated this otherwise noble project.
5 Su Bai’s work has now been superseded by several recent studies including those of Wang,
Michelle, “From Dhāraṇī to Maṇḍala: A Study of Mogao Cave 14 and Esoteric Buddhist Art of
the Tang Dynasty (618–907)” (Ph.D. thesis, Harvard University, 2008); and Kimiaki, Tanaka,
Tonkō mikkyō to bijutsu 敦煌密教と美術 [Esoteric Buddhism at Dunhuang and Art] (Kyoto:
Hōzōkan, 2000). See also Peng Jinzhang 彭金章, Shenmi de mijiao 神秘的密教 [Divine
Secrets of Esoteric Buddhism], Jiedu Dunhuang 解读敦煌 [Interpreting Dunhuang], ed.
Dunhuang yanjiu yuan 敦煌研究院 (Shanghai: Huadong shifan daxue chubanshe, 2010).
Although not a scholarly work per se, this book is nevertheless useful for providing images
and data of many of the wall paintings relating to Esoteric Buddhism at the Mogao Caves.