140 Part II Psychodynamic Theories
self-realization, which also are not clearly differentiated. Jung’s language is often
arcane, and many of his terms are not adequately defined. As for operational
definitions, Jung, like other early personality theorists, did not define terms opera-
tionally. Therefore, we rate his theory as low on internal consistency.
The final criterion of a useful theory is parsimony. Jung’s psychology is not
simple, but neither is human personality. However, because it is more cumbersome
than necessary, we can give it only a low rating on parsimony. Jung’s proclivity
for searching for data from a variety of disciplines and his willingness to explore
his own unconscious, even beneath the personal level, contribute to the great com-
plexities and the broad scope of his theory. The law of parsimony states, “When
two theories are equally useful, the simpler one is preferred.” In fact, of course, no
two are ever equal, but Jung’s theory, while adding a dimension to human person-
ality not greatly dealt with by others, is probably more complex than necessary.Concept of Humanity
Jung saw humans as complex beings with many opposing poles. His view
of humanity was neither pessimistic nor optimistic, neither deterministic nor
purposive. To him, people are motivated partly by conscious thoughts, partly
by images from their personal unconscious, and partly by latent memory
traces inherited from their ancestral past. Their motivation comes from both
causal and teleological factors.
The complex makeup of humans invalidates any simple or one-sided
description. According to Jung, each person is a composition of opposing
forces. No one is completely introverted or totally extraverted; all male or
all female; solely a thinking, feeling, sensing, or intuitive person; and no one
proceeds invariably in the direction of either progression or regression.
The persona is but a fraction of an individual. What one wishes to show
others is usually only the socially acceptable side of personality. Every per-
son has a dark side, a shadow, and most try to conceal it from both society
and themselves. In addition, each man possesses an anima and every
woman an animus.
The various complexes and archetypes cast their spell over people and
are responsible for many of their words and actions and most of their dreams
and fantasies. Although people are not masters in their own houses, neither
are they completely dominated by forces beyond their control. People have
some limited capacity to determine their lives. Through strong will and with
great courage, they can explore the hidden recesses of their psyche. They
can recognize their shadow as their own, become partially conscious of their
feminine or masculine side, and cultivate more than a single function. This
process, which Jung called individuation or self-realization, is not easy and
demands more fortitude than most people can muster. Ordinarily, a person
who has achieved self-realization has reached middle life and has lived
successfully through the stages of childhood and youth. During middle age,