137
countries, including India, Imperial
China, the Mughal Empire, and the
Japanese shogunate at first merely
tolerated the Europeans as traders,
allowing them to control only a few
islands or enclaves along the coast,
as long as they did not interfere or
become too troublesome.Economic growth
From the second half of the 17th
century, signs of economic growth
accelerated in Europe. Productivity
of labor in trades and agriculture
increased notably in areas like the
Dutch Netherlands. New financial
institutions, such as central banks
and joint stock companies, laid the
foundations of modern capitalism.
Complex patterns of maritime trade
linked European colonies in the
Americas to Europe, Africa, and
Asia. Slaves, mostly bought byEuropean traders in West Africa,
were transported in vast numbers
to work on colonial plantations, so
that in some parts of the New World
people of African descent greatly
outnumbered both Europeans and
the native population. At home,
Europeans consumed luxury goods
from China and India, and products
such as sugar and coffee from
plantations in the Caribbean and
Brazil. North America, the West
Indies, and India were all regions of
colonial contention—the precipitous
decline of the Mughal Empire
having opened up parts of India
to European territorial conquest.Intellectual movements
Even at this stage, the degree of
European ascendancy should not
be exaggerated. China had gone
through difficult times in the mid-17th century transition from the
Ming to the Qing dynasty, but in
the 18th century, imperial China
was enjoying a golden age of power
and prosperity. The population of
Europe had begun a steep increase
to unprecedented levels—a result
of improved food production and
declining epidemic diseases—
but China also experienced rapid
population growth.
What really marked out Europe
as unique at this time was the
development of knowledge and
thought. The 17th-century scientific
revolution began a transformation
of our understanding of the universe.
The rationalist movement known as
the Enlightenment challenged all
preconceptions, traditions, and
conventions. The modern world
was under construction in the
European mind. ■THE EARLY MODERN ERA
1620
1649
1660 1759
1687
English religious
separatists (pilgrims)
set sail in the Mayflower
to seek a new life; they
found a colony in
North America.The English Civil
War culminates in the
execution of King
Charles I; England
becomes a republic for
the next 11 years.The Royal African
Company is established
in England; slaves are
taken from the West
African coast for sale
in the Americas.The Battle of Quebec
ends French rule in
Canada; it was part of
the Seven Years’ War,
which involved most
major European nations.Isaac Newton publishes
his theories about
gravity based on
mathematics and logic,
paving the way for
the Enlightenment.1768
Captain Cook sets
sail on his first voyage;
he maps the New
Zealand coast and
claims southeastern
Australia for Britain.1703
Tsar Peter the Great
founds St Petersburg
on the Baltic coast to
encourage trade and
modernize Russia
along European lines.1751
The first volume of
Diderot’s three-part
Encyclopédie is
published, distilling
the rational ideas of
the Enlightenment.US_136-137_Ch_4_intro.indd 137 15/02/2016 16:42