150
the colonists, and as a result of
their ruthless treatment, and slaves
were brought in from Africa to
replace them. Brazil, ruled from the
mid-16th century by Portuguese
governors-general, remained a
colony until the early 19th century.The Spanish in America
Following Columbus’s transatlantic
voyages and the settlement of the
treaty, Spain turned increasingly to
America, sponsoring expeditions
that combined exploration with
conquest and colonization. The first
of these, led by Hernán Cortés, was
to Mexico, which was then home tothe small but rich Aztec Empire.
The empire’s large, central capital
was at Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico
City). With just a small force of
about 600 men, Cortés overthrew
the million-strong empire, eventually
killing its ruler, Moctezuma.
Another Spanish leader, Francisco
Pizarro, conquered the Inca Empire,
which centered on Peru but also
included Chile, Ecuador, and large
parts of Bolivia and northwestern
Argentina. Again with just a small
force (180 men), Pizarro laid the
foundations of another Spanish
stronghold and source of great
wealth in precious metals. Peruvian
silver became the main source of
Spain’s income from its colonies.
Several factors contributed to
Cortés’ and Pizarro’s astounding
conquests. The Aztecs were
overwhelmed by a kind of battleTHE TREATY OF TORDESILLAS
unknown to them, involving
firearms and the single-minded
slaughter of opponents—Aztec
practice was to capture prisoners,
whom they would later kill in ritual
sacrifice. The Spanish were also
helped by alliances they made
with local peoples who were hostile
to the Aztecs. The result for Spain
was a flow of wealth across the
Atlantic and a secure base for
building on their involvement in
the Americas.
Further Spanish colonization
followed, including that of Colombia,
known to the Spanish as New
Granada. By the end of the 17th
century, much of western and
central South America was
in Spanish hands. Conquered
areas, and the people who lived in
them, were parceled out to the
Spanish conquistadors, whoThe siege of Tenochtitlan, the
Aztec capital, was decisive in the
Spanish conquest of Mexico, and
brought the Spaniards a step closer to
their goal of colonizing the Americas.US_148-151_Treaty_Tordesillas.indd 150 15/02/2016 16:42
151
undertook to convert the locals
to Christianity. They did convert
them, but they also made them
perform forced labor, especially in
the silver mines. Laborers fell victim
to disease and exploitation—like
their counterparts in Brazil, but on
a lesser scale—and slaves from
Africa were brought in to
supplement their numbers.
The Spanish Crown tried to
control this large empire, appointing
viceroys to rule over the settlers
and the native American peoples,
and taking a fifth of the profits from
silver mining. Settlers increasingly
resisted this external interference,
however, and by the 19th century
the empire was diminishing as
areas from Colombia to Chile won
their independence.Circumnavigation
The Treaty of Tordesillas set the
seal of approval on Spain’s activity
in America, but this deterred neither
Spain nor Portugal from looking for
a westward route to eastern Asia,
a potential source of spices, luxury
goods, and great wealth for traders
from Europe. Amerigo Vespucci, an
Italian navigator working for the
Portuguese Crown, was one of the
first to take this exploration further.
He explored the coast of SouthAmerica, and is remembered
because America is named after
him. The Portuguese navigator
Ferdinand Magellan was next to
explore this route, this time on
behalf of Spain. He believed that
the Spice Islands could be less than
halfway around the world when
sailing west from the treaty line,
which would give Spain a claim to
them. In 1519 he set out with five
ships in an ambitious attempt to
make the first circumnavigation
of the globe. Although Magellan
himself died en route, some of the
expedition survivors completed the
voyage, giving Spain a basis for its
claim to land in Southeast Asia.
In 1529 the rival Crowns signed
another treaty at Zaragoza. This
agreement assigned the Philippines to
Spain and the Moluccas to Portugal.The treaty’s heritage
European countries not party to
the Tordesillas agreement simply
ignored it, and soon began to move
in to develop their own empires.
Britain colonized North America,
for example, the Dutch moved into
the Spice Islands, and several
European countries set up colonies
in the Caribbean. The treaty did,
however, influence a significant
proportion of the world. It underlined
a development that was already
beginning in Europe in which
wealth and influence were passing
from the old central European
powers (based in the Holy Roman
Empire) to the coastal, maritime
powers that looked to build empires
in new territories. These empires
brought both Spain and Portugal
enormous riches, and their overseas
empires left a significant cultural
legacy: much of South and Central
America is Spanish-speaking, and
there is a major Portuguese heritage
in parts of Africa and Asia, the
greatest of all being in Brazil. ■THE EARLY MODERN ERA
Ferdinand Magellan
Born into a noble Portuguese
family, Magellan (1480–1521)
was orphaned as a boy, and
sent to the Portuguese royal
court to act as page.
As a young man, he
became a naval officer. He
served in Portugal’s colonies
in India and took part in the
conquest of the Moluccas,
but after a disagreement with
the Portuguese king, he went
to Spain to look for support
for his venture westward. By
1518 he had the backing of
the Spanish king Charles I,
and set off the following year
with five ships.
After losing one ship to
the weather and another to a
desertion, Magellan navigated
the narrow sea route (named
the Strait of Magellan in his
honor) between what is now
mainland South America and
Tierra del Fuego. He emerged
in an ocean he named Pacific,
because of its calmness. He
crossed this expanse of water,
stopping at Guam, and then in
the Philippines, where he was
killed. Only one ship, under
Juan Sebastien del Cano,
made it back to Europe in
1522, having achieved the first
circumnavigation of the globe.Those regions which
we found and explored with
the fleet... we may rightly
call a New World.
Amerigo Vespucci, 1503US_148-151_Treaty_Tordesillas.indd 151 15/02/2016 16:42