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F
rom the late 18th century,
history took on a perhaps
delusory air of “progress.”
Change accelerated and seemed
to have a clear direction. The world
population exceeded 1 billion in
1804 and was approaching 2 billion
by 1914. This growth was made
possible by tremendous increases
in economic output. Agriculture
became more efficient and large
areas of new land were put to
productive use. The exploitation of
new sources of energy—especially
steam power—the application of
new technology, and organized
industrial production in factories
revolutionized the manufacture
of commodities. Railways made it
possible for humans to travel faster
than a horse for the first time and
cities expanded—for instance, the
population in London increased from1 million in 1800 to 7 million in 1910.
Improvements in public health and
medicine increased life expectancy
in the most advanced countries.Human rights and equality
Despite these advancements, it
is debatable whether progress
was detectable in the quality of life.
At the start of this period, political
revolutions in America and France
enunciated principles of human
rights and equal citizenship that
radically challenged the existing
order of society. By the early 20th
century, liberals and democrats in
Europe and North America could
look with some complacency upon
successes such as the widespread
expansion of voting rights, the
abolition of slavery, and freedom of
speech. However, women remained
mostly excluded from voting, andthere was no economic equality.
Extremes of wealth and poverty
polarized the world’s wealthiest
and most advanced societies, and
conditions of life for industrial
workers were often very miserable.
Artists and intellectuals of the
Romantic movement criticized the
impact of mechanized industry on
people and the environment, while
socialist movements looked forward
to further revolutions that would
end the exploitation of man by man
and create egalitarian societies.Western imperialism
The most obvious losers in the new
world order created by industrial
capitalism were the inhabitants of
countries at the periphery of the
global economy. The industrializing
countries of the West, needing
places to invest their excess capital,INTRODUCTION
1776
1789
1819
1830
1807
1815
1848
Simon Bolívar
establishes Gran
Colombia, a new South
American republic
independent of Spanish
rule; it lasts until 1830.The storming of the Bastille
signals the start of the
French Revolution, in
which the monarchy
is overthrown and a
republic is established.The Slave Trade Abolition
Act is passed in Britain,
outlawing trading
in slaves; however,
slavery itself is not
banned until 1833.The Second Opium
War is launched by
Western powers to
force China to give
access to Chinese
ports for trade.Napoleon is defeated
at the Battle of
Waterloo by the
British, Dutch, and
Prussians, ending 23
years of war in Europe.The Declaration of
Independence is signed.
It asserts basic human
rights and creates a
new nation: the United
States of America.Revolts occur all over
Europe as demands for
liberalism, socialism,
and national self-
determination grow; all
are suppressed by force.George Stephenson’s
Rocket steam engine
powers the world’s first
commercial rail service,
which links Liverpool
and Manchester.1856
US_202-203_Ch_5_intro.indd 202 15/02/2016 16:43
203
raw materials for their factories,
and markets for their new products,
found them in Asia, Africa, and
Latin America. They also sought
land for their expanding populations
to settle in thinly populated zones
such as the North American plains
and Australia. Peoples who stood
in their way were swept aside. The
Europeans started expanding the
areas under their direct rule or
control. The British takeover of the
Indian subcontinent, more or less
complete by the mid-19th century,
was the most spectacular example
of imperialism in action, and Sub-
Saharan Africa was divided among
the European powers as if the local
population did not exist.
The world’s response to Western
imperialism was mixed. Resistance
was widespread in the form of wars
and uprisings against Europeandominance. On the other hand, the
growing superiority of the West in
technology, science, military power,
and social organization led several
non-European governments to try
to modernize based on the Western
model. In the Muslim world, Egypt,
Turkey, and Iran attempted, with
only partial success, to pursue a
modernizing agenda. In East Asia,
Japan successfully transformed
itself into an efficient modern state,
becoming an imperialist power in
its own right. China, by contrast,
experienced turmoil and invasion,
and imperial rule collapsed in the
early 20th century.Rising nationalism
Most Europeans and people of
European descent gloried in a sense
of their own racial and cultural
superiority to the rest of the world,but Europe remained a deeply
divided continent. Militant
nationalism, unleashed by the
French Revolution, was a threat to
stability. By 1815, the Napoleonic
Wars had generated battles of
unprecedented scale. After the
wars of the mid-19th century
that created a unified Italy and
Germany, the great powers
maintained large conscript armies
and formed mutually hostile
alliance systems. These armies
were equipped with high-explosive
shells and rapid-fire weapons.
European military power, which
was supported by highly organized
state systems and economies, was
certainly one of the key elements in
European world domination. There
would be disaster when European
states turned this power against
one another. ■CHANGING SOCIETIES
1859
1860
1863 1869 1908
1868 1892 1913
Charles Darwin
publishes On the Origin
of the Species, in
which he introduces
his controversial
theory of evolution.Giuseppe Garibaldi
leads 1,000 volunteers
to overthrow the French
Bourbons in southern
Italy and Sicily; Italy was
unified one year later.During the American
Civil War, US president
Abraham Lincoln gives
the Gettysburg Address,
one of the greatest
speeches in history.The Suez Canal opens,
linking the Red and
Mediterranean seas, and
dramatically reducing
sailing times between
Europe and the East.A coalition of various
reform groups, known
collectively as the Young
Turks, overthrow the
authoritarian Ottoman
sultan and attempt to rule.The Tokugawa
shogunate is ousted and
the Emperor Meiji
becomes ruler of Japan;
the nation emerges as
a major imperial power.Ellis Island opens in New
York Harbor to process
arrivals of immigrants
to the United States;
most become US citizens.
The island closed in 1954.Emily Davison steps
out under King George
V’s horse at the Derby
and is killed, raising
the profile of women’s
suffrage worldwide.US_202-203_Ch_5_intro.indd 203 15/02/2016 16:43