The History Book

268

H

istorical perspectives on

events close to the present

day are inevitably shifting

and uncertain. A historian writing

in the mid-20th century might have

characterized the modern era as a

period of catastrophe, in which all

the economic and political gains

of liberal civilization had been

squandered. However, by the early

21st century it was tempting to see

continuity with the pre-1914 world,

as a globalized capitalist economy

and great technological innovation

were combined with rapidly rising

population and productivity.

The two world wars

The convulsions of the period from

1914 to 1950 were on an epic scale.

Two world wars between them

caused the deaths of between

70 and 100 million people, making

them by far the most destructive

conflicts in history. Both European

civilization and science—the twin

pillars of the traditional 19th-century

idea of “progress”—were tarnished

by association with this slaughter.

Germany, often considered one of

Europe’s most “civilized” countries,

descended into dictatorship and

genocidal massacre. Science was

used to create weapons of mass

destruction, from poison gas to the

atom bomb. Even in the interlude

of relative peace between the world

wars, global capitalism failed to

function effectively, the economic

misery of the Great Depression

driving a retreat from democratic

government and free markets.

To revolutionaries inspired by

a Marxist vision, these upheavals

seemed the death throes of the

capitalist order. But the building of

alternative “communist” societies,

based on the model of a single-

party state and a state-controlled

economy, proved to be a costly

experiment. In Russia, followed by

China, communism succeeded in

transforming relatively undeveloped

countries into major industrial and

military powers, but millions died

as victims of the state, and citizens

were denied fundamental freedoms.

A battle of ideology

World War II was followed by the

Cold War confrontation between

the “free world,” led by the United

States, and the communist bloc.

Instead of disarmament, there was

a potentially disastrous nuclear

arms race. Meanwhile, the main

European powers, economically

weakened and demoralized, found

themselves in no position to sustain

INTRODUCTION

1917

1919

1939

1942

1929

1934–35

1947

Hitler invades Poland,

and Britain and France

declare war on Germany;

the war lasts six years and

is the deadliest

in world history.

World War I ends (1918), and the

Treaty of Versailles is signed in

June 1919: the Germans are

stripped of land, their army

is reduced, and they have

to pay reparations.

Shares on the New York

Stock Exchange crash.

Billions of dollars are lost

and the financial disaster

plunges the world into

the Great Depression.

The Jewish state of

Israel is established

in Palestine, which

had previously been

under British rule

for three decades.

Fleeing from Nationalists

in southern China,

80,000 communists

led by Mao Zedong

head for the north on the

perilous Long March.

Uprisings in Russia lead

to the abdication of the

Tsar. Lenin calls for a

revolution and the

Bolsheviks seize

power in November.

British India divides

into two independent

nation-states:

Hindu-majority

India and Muslim-

majority Pakistan.

The Nazis meet at

Wannsee to plan the

annihilation of the

Jews. More than

6 million are killed

in the holocaust.

1948

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269

their empires against colonized

populations eager for freedom. The

newly independent nations became

an ideological and even, at times,

military battleground between the

capitalist and communist systems.

In the end, the issue was settled

by economics. Capitalism showed

its ability to generate economic

growth on a vast scale, creating a

booming consumer society in more

advanced countries. In contrast,

by the 1980s communist countries

confronted economic stagnation

and rising popular discontent. With

great rapidity, communist regimes

collapsed in the Soviet bloc, while

communist China later became a

powerhouse of capitalism.

In the wake of communism, the

political scientist Francis Fukuyama

coined the expression the “end of

history” and argued that Western

liberal democracy was “the only

game in town.” Certainly, by the end

of the 20th century liberalism was

surfing a wave: in 1950, only a few

nations in Europe were democracies;

50 years later, all of them were.

Progress and pessimism

From the 1960s, hotly contested

campaigns for civil rights had

progressed liberal ideals in areas

such as racial equality and gender

politics. Growing prosperity was

also impressive. In Latin America

and much of Asia, living standards

had risen dramatically by the early

21st century. Despite the world’s

population increasing on a huge

scale—from under 2 billion in 1914

to over 7 billion one century later—

food supplies had not run out, as

had once been predicted by many.

Restricting environmental damage

was recognized as a major challenge

for the future, a problem generated

by humanity’s growth and success.

Indeed, human progress in the

20th century was remarkable, from

rising literacy and life expectancy

to the development of air and space

travel and computers. Yet there was

no outbreak of general optimism.

Environmental issues aside, it was

all too evident that the future held

potential dangers: the unsettled

politics of the Middle East, sucking

major powers into wars; brutal acts

of terrorism; economic inequality

generating mass migration; financial

instability and market breakdown;

epidemics spread by global travel—

all provided plenty of material for

pessimists. History offered no solid

ground for predictions, suggesting

only that the unexpected was to

be expected. ■

THE MODERN WORLD

1956

1957

1962 1989 2001

1965 1991 2011

Egyptian leader Nasser declares

the nationalization of the Suez

Canal. Britain, France, and

Israel invade Egypt, the US

imposes a ceasefire, and the

allies withdraw.

Kwame Nkrumah wins

Ghanaian independence

from Britain through

peaceful means. By the

1970s, most countries in

Africa are independent.

For 13 days the world is

under the threat of nuclear

war between Cuba and the

US, during the Cuban Missile

Crisis. The dispute is resolved

by diplomacy.

The East German

government lifts travel

restrictions and

thousands of people tear

down the Berlin Wall;

communism collapses.

On September 11,

Islamic extremists

launch a major

terrorist attack on

the US. Almost 3,000

people are killed.

The US sends troops

to South Vietnam to

prevent the spread of

communism and is

embroiled in the war

for nine years.

The first website (“World

Wide Web”) goes live,

built by British computer

scientist Tim Berners-

Lee to enable academics

to share information.

The world’s population

exceeds 7 billion; the global

challenge is to improve

living standards

without destroying

the environment.

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