75
From the 11th century, a revival of
Western European culture, trade,
and urban life gathered pace. The
“Medieval Warm Period” (950–1250),
when Europe experienced above-
average temperatures, improved
yields from agriculture; it was also
a time when great cathedrals and
castles were constructed. But
even when the Christian crusaders
fought their way to Jerusalem at the
heart of the Muslim world, the flow
of civilization was the other way,
with Islamic scholars far advanced
in medicine, philosophy, astronomy,
a nd ge og raphy.Expansion and contraction
By the 13th century, the world’s
population is believed to have risen
to around 400 million—double its
total at the high point of the ancient
empires. A wide-ranging networklinked Europe to China and the
thriving trading kingdoms of Asia,
by land along the Silk Road and by
sea across the Indian Ocean. Cairo
and Venice both became wealthy
cities as focal points at the western
end of this trade.
However, civilized life remained
precarious. The Mongols—nomadic
warriors from the Asian steppes—
seized major cities from the Middle
East to southern China, carrying
out large-scale massacres. Lethal
diseases were also highly prevalent.
Carried along the trade routes in the
mid-14th century, the Black Death
epidemic may have killed a quarter
of the world’s population.Inventions and progress
Technological progress was slow
but cumulatively substantial. As
the world’s most advanced country,China was the ultimate source of
most inventions, from paper and
printing to the magnetic compass
and gunpowder. Even relatively
backward Europe benefited from
improvements in shipbuilding and
metalworking, and the invention
and spread of the plow and the
windmill transformed agriculture.
By the end of the Middle Ages,
Western European kingdoms had
developed from “feudal” states,
based on oaths of loyalty, to more
stable and centralized states, able
to channel their key resources into
the large projects of colonization
and exploration. In the Americas,
meanwhile, civilizations such as
the Aztecs and Incas continued to
evolve independently, untouched by
developments in Eurasia and Africa,
until the Spanish conquistadors
arrived in the 16th century. ■THE MEDIEVAL WORLD
1215
1275
1324 1347 1443
1325 1368 1492
King John of England
signs the Magna Carta,
which asserts that all
individuals, including
the king, are subject
to the law of the land.The Venetian merchant
Marco Polo arrives at the
court of Kublai Khan;
the Mongol ruler will go
on to conquer southern
China four years later.Mansa Musa, the
wealthy ruler of Mali,
makes a high-profile
hajj to Mecca, resulting
in the spread of Islam
in West Africa.The bubonic plague
arrives in Europe,
probably originating in
Asia. Within two years,
it kills over one-third
of Europe’s population.Korean king Sejong
declares the creation
of a new, simpler
alphabet for the
Korean language,
to encourage literacy.The Aztecs found their
capital city Tenochtitlan
in central Mexico.
Meanwhile, the Incas
establish a civilization
in Peru.Hongwu is proclaimed the
first emperor of the Ming
dynasty, having ousted
the Yuan dynasty. Almost
300 years of prosperity
and stability fol low.King Ferdinand and
Queen Isabella of
Spain seize Granada,
ending 800 years of
Muslim rule on the
Iberian peninsula.US_074-075_Ch_3_intro.indd 75 15/02/2016 16:41