251
empire to unite the disparate tribes
of Arabia. Within a century of his
death in 632, the Islamic Empire
had expanded across northern
Africa and into Asia. Despite
disputes over who should succeed
Muhammad, which led to the
division between Sunni and Shi‘a
Islam, the Islamic Caliphate—the
Muslim political and religious state
ruled by a caliph—wielded great
political unity and power.
The Islamic Golden Age
Soon, the Islamic Empire extended
over a wider area than Christian
Europe. However, in contrast to
Christianity, which saw scientific
thought to be a threat to its dogma,
Islam saw no incompatibility
between its theology and the
disciplines of philosophy and
science. Cities such as Baghdad
and Damascus became centers
of scientific inquiry and learning.
Islamic writing and poetry also
flourished, along with decorative
arts, including calligraphy.
The Islamic Empire eventually
fragmented, but Islam remains
one of the largest of all religions,
practiced by some 25 percent
of the world population. About
three-quarters of adherents
are Sunni, and 10 to 20 percent,
Shi‘a. Around 50 countries have
a Muslim majority: of these, a
handful, including Saudi Arabia,
Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Iran
are considered Islamic states,
based on religious law; a large
number of other countries, mainly
in the Middle East, have Islam as
their official state religion; others
still have secular governments,
but predominantly Islamicpopulations. Indonesia is the
country with the largest number
of Muslims, followed by Pakistan,
India, and Bangladesh.
Approximately 25 percent of
Muslims live in the Middle East
and North Africa, and there are
now Muslim communities in almost
every other country in the world.
Islam has come into conflict,
both ideologically and politically,
with the Christian world since the
Crusades, and following colonial
domination by the West. Recent
tensions have given rise to a radical
interpretation of jihad (struggle) by
some fundamentalist Muslims as a
religious duty to defend their faith
through conflict. However, Islam is
essentially a peaceable religion, and
most Muslims identify more closely
with the compassionate principles
of their faith. ■ISLAM
1082–1130
1095–1291
13 TH CENTURY 1526 1979
1453 1948 2011
Muhammad ibn
Tumart founds the
Al-Muwahhidun
movement (“those who
emphasize unity”).Islam comes under
attack in a series of
Crusades, blessed by the
Catholic Church, to regain
Christian control of
the Holy Land.Mongol invasions
led by Genghis
Khan end the
Abbasid era.The Islamic
Mughal Empire
is established
in India.The Iranian
Revolution replaces
Iran’s Westernizing
government.Mehmed II
of Turkey conquers
Constantinople
and founds the
Ottoman Empire.The State of Israel is
established, leading
to the start of the
Arab–Israeli conflict,
which continues to
the present.The Arab Spring:
democracy is
established, allowing
the election of
Islamist parties in
several countries.