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(knowledge or insight), karma-
marga (appropriate action or right
behavior), and bhakti-marga
(devotion to the gods). The marga
allow scope for a very wide range
of religious practices to suit the
different traditions, including
a variety of rituals, meditation,
yoga, and everyday worship (puja).
Concepts of god
Virtually all branches of Hinduism
accept that there is a supreme
creator god, Brahma, who with
Vishnu (the preserver), and Shiva
(the destroyer) form a principal
trinity, the Trimurti. However,
many traditions have their own
pantheons, or add local and
personal deities to the mix.
Confusingly, even the three major
gods (and a lot of the minor ones)
often appear in different guises.
And so, while it may seem that
Hinduism is a polytheistic religion,
in many traditions, it is truer to say
that adherents have a belief in a
Lord God, who is complemented
by the many minor deities who
have special powers or carry
particular responsibilities.Sacred texts
The different Hindu traditions
have all been shaped by the four
Vedas, a collection of ancient
texts composed between 1200
and 900 BCE. The Brahmanas,
commentaries on the Vedas, and
later the Upanishads, provided a
theoretical underpinning of the
religion, while other texts—notably
the two Indian epic poems, the
Mahabharata and the Ramayana—
expanded on history, mythology,
religion, and philosophy.One of the main characteristics of
these Hindu traditions is tolerance.
As a consequence of invasion, first
by the Greeks under Alexander the
Great, and later by Muslims and
Christians, Hinduism has adapted
and accepted some influences.
However, while some reform
movements emerged as a result of
colonial influences, collectively
labeling these connected religions
as Hinduism gave them political
clout and a focus for nationalism.
This came to a head in the
struggle for Indian independence
in the 20th century, with Mohandas
Gandhi famously advocating the
Hindu weapons of nonviolent
resistance and civil disobedience,
and thereafter establishing an
independent India in which all
religions are not only tolerated
but embraced. ■HINDUISM
2 ND CENTURY BCE
6 TH CENTURY CE
788–820 CE 1836 – 86 1869 –1948
1526 1788–1860
The Yoga Sutras
—the key texts
of Yoga, a school of
Hindu philosophy—
are compiled.Bhakti—a Hindu
movement with an
emphasis on personal
devotion—develops.Adi Shankara
establishes the
non-dualistic Advaita
Vedanta school of
Hindu philosophy.Sri Ramakrishna
emerges as a leading
figure in the Hindu
reform movement.Mahatma Gandhi
combines religion
and politics in his
peaceful opposition
to injustice and
discrimination.The Mahabharata,
including the Bhagavad-
Gita (“Song of the Lord”),
offers role models
for Hindus.The Islamic
Mughal Empire is
founded, ruling
parts of India until
the arrival of the
British Raj in 1858.The German
philosopher Arthur
Schopenhauer begins
to incorporate Indian
beliefs into his
Idealist philosophy.2 ND CENTURY BCE