The Philosophy Book

147

See also: Aristotle 56–63 ■ John Locke 130–33 ■ David Hume 148–53 ■ John Stuart Mill 190–93 ■
Hans-Georg Gadamer 260–61 ■ Karl Popper 262–65

THE AGE OF REVOLUTION

rebellion against the accepted
traditions that Voltaire pronounced
that certainty is absurd.
Voltaire refutes the idea of
certainty in two ways. First, he
points out that apart from a few
necessary truths of mathematics
and logic, nearly every fact and
theory in history has been revised
at some point in time. So what
appears to be “fact” is actually little
more than a working hypothesis.
Second, he agrees with Locke that
there is no such thing as an innate
idea, and points out that ideas we
seem to know as true from birth
may be only cultural, as these
change from country to country.

Revolutionary doubt
Voltaire does not assert that there
are no absolute truths, but he sees
no means of reaching them. For
this reason he thinks doubt is the

only logical standpoint. Given that

endless disagreement is therefore

inevitable, Voltaire says that it is

important to develop a system, such

as science, to establish agreement.

In claiming that certainty is

more pleasant than doubt, Voltaire

hints at how much easier it is

simply to accept authoritative

statements—such as those issued

by the monarchy or Church—than

it is to challenge them and think

Voltaire Voltaire was the pseudonym of

the French writer and thinker,

François Marie Arouet. He was

born into a middle-class family in

Paris, and was the youngest of

three children. He studied law

at university, but always preferred

writing, and by 1715 was famous

as a great literary wit. His satirical

writing often landed him in trouble:

he was imprisoned several times

for insulting nobility, and was

once exiled from France. This led

to a stay in England, where he fell

under the influence of English

philosophy and science. After

returning to France he became

wealthy through speculation,

and was thereafter able to

devote himself to writing. He

had several long and scandalous

affairs, and travelled widely

throughout Europe. In later life

Voltaire campaigned vigorously

for legal reform and against

religious intolerance, in France

and further afield.

Key works

1733 Philosophical Letters

1734 Treatise on Metaphysics

1759 Candide

1764 Philosophical Dictionary

for yourself. But Voltaire believes

it is vitally important to doubt

every “fact” and to challenge all

authority. He holds that government

should be limited but speech

uncensored, and that science and

education lead to material and

moral progress. These were

fundamental ideals of both the

Enlightenment and the French

Revolution, which took place

11 years after Voltaire’s death. ■

Scientific experiments during the
Age of Enlightenment seemed to
Voltaire to lead the way toward a
better world, based on empirical
evidence and unabashed curiosity.