243
See also: René Descartes 116–23 ■ Immanuel Kant 164–71 ■ Edmund Husserl
224–25 ■ Martin Heidegger 252–55 ■ Jean-Paul Sartre 268–71
THE MODERN WORLD
in particular circumstances—
circumstances that are often
oppressive and limiting. These
limitations are not only those of
our physical surroundings, but also
of our thoughts, which contain
prejudices, and our behavior, which
is shaped by habit.
While many people live without
reflecting on the nature of their
circumstances, Ortega says that
philosophers should not only strive
to understand their circumstances
better, they should actively seek
to change them. Indeed, he claims
that the philosopher’s duty is to
expose the assumptions that
lie behind all our beliefs.
The energy of life
In order to transform the world and
to engage creatively with our own
existence, Ortega says that we
must look at our lives with fresh
eyes. This means not only looking
anew at our external circumstances,
but also looking inside ourselves to
reconsider our beliefs and prejudices.
Only when we have done this will
we be able to commit ourselves to
creating new possibilities.
However, there is a limit to the
amount that we can change the
world. Our habitual thinking runs
deep, and even if we free ourselves
enough to imagine new possibilities
and new futures, our external
circumstances may stand in the
way of realizing these possibilities.
The futures that we imagine will
always collide with the reality of
the circumstances in which we
find ourselves. This is why Ortega
sees life as a series of collisions
with the future.
Ortega’s idea is challenging
on both a personal and a political
level. It reminds us that we have
a duty to attempt to change our
circumstances, even though we
may encounter difficulties in doing
so, and even though our attempts
may not always succeed. In The
Revolt of the Masses, he warns that
democracy carries within it the
threat of tyranny by the majority,
and that to live by majority rule—to
live “like everyone else”—is to live
without a personal vision or moral
code. Unless we engage creatively
with our own lives, we are hardly
living at all. This is why for Ortega,
reason is vital—it holds the energy
of life itself. ■José Ortega y Gasset
José Ortega y Gasset was
born in Madrid, Spain, in 1883.
He studied philosophy first
in Madrid, then at various
German universities—where
he became influenced by the
philosophy of Immanuel
Kant—before settling in Spain
as a university professor.
Throughout his life, Ortega
earned a living not only as a
philosopher but as a journalist
and essayist. He was also
actively engaged in Spanish
politics in the 1920s and
1930s, but his involvement
came to an end with the
outbreak of the Spanish Civil
War in 1936. Ortega then
went into exile in Argentina,
where he stayed, disillusioned
with politics, until 1945.
After three years in Portugal,
he returned to Madrid in
1948, where he founded the
Institute of Humanities. He
continued working as a
philosopher and journalist
for the remainder of his life.Key works1914 Meditations on Quixote
1925 The Dehumanization
of Art
1930 The Revolt of the Masses
1935 History as a System
1957 What is Philosophy?Every act of hope, such as celebrating
Christmas on the front line in World
War I, is a testament to our ability
to overcome our circumstances. For
Ortega, this is “vital reason” in action.
I am myself and
my circumstances.
José Ortega y Gasset