Western Civilization

manufacturing shifted significantly. Industry spread from

Greece to the East—especiallyto Asia Minor, Rhodes, and

Egypt. Leading all cities in manufacturing was Alexandria

in Egypt, which became the center for the production of

parchment, textiles, linens, oil, metalwork, and glass.

Commerce expanded considerably in the Hellenistic

era. Indeed, trading contacts linked much of the

Hellenistic world. The decline in the number of politi-

cal barriers encouraged more commercial traffic.

Although Hellenistic monarchs still fought wars, the

conquests of Alexander and the policies of his succes-

sors made possible greater trade between East and

West. An incredible variety of products were traded:

gold and silver from Spain; iron from northern Arme-

nia; salt from Asia Minor; timber from Macedonia;

purple dye from Tyre; ebony, gems, ivory, and spices

from India; frankincense (used on altars) from Arabia;

slaves from Thrace, Syria, and Asia Minor; fine wines

from Syria and western Asia Minor; olive oil from

Athens; and numerous exquisite foodstuffs, such as

the famous prunes of Damascus. The greatest trade,

however, was in the basic staple of life—grain. The

great exporting areas were Egypt, Sicily, and the Black

Sea region.

New Opportunities for Women

One of the significant features of social life in the Hel-

lenistic world was the emergence of new opportunities

for women—at least, for upper-class women—espe-

cially in economic matters. Documents reveal increas-

ing numbers of women involved in managing slaves,

selling property, and making loans. Even then, legal

contracts made by women had to include their official

male guardians, although in numerous instances these

men no longer played an important function but were

listed only to satisfy legal requirements. Although a

few philosophers welcomed female participation in

men’s affairs, many philosophers rejected equality

between men and women and asserted that the tradi-

tional roles of wives and mothers were most satisfying

for women. In her treatise “On Chastity,” Phintys (FIN-

tiss) wrote that “serving as generals, public officials,

and statesmen is appropriate for men,” but “keeping

house, remaining within, and taking care of husbands

belongs to women.”^3

But the opinions of philosophers did not prevent

upper-class women from making gains in areas other

than the economic sphere (see the box on p. 86). New

possibilities for females arose when women in some

parts of the Hellenistic world were allowed to pursue

education in the traditional fields of literature, music,

and even athletics. Education, then, provided new oppor-

tunities for women: several female poets were active in

the third century B.C.E., and there are instances of

women involved in both scholarly and artistic activities.

The creation of the Hellenistic monarchies, which

represented a considerable departure from the world of

thepolis, also gave new scope to the role played by the

monarchs’ wives, the Hellenistic queens. In Macedonia,

a pattern of alliances between mothers and sons

provided openings for women to take an active role in

politics, especially in political intrigue. In Egypt, oppor-

tunities for royal women were even greater because the

Ptolemaic rulers reverted to an Egyptian custom of kings

marrying their own sisters. Of the first eight Ptolemaic

rulers, four wed their sisters. Ptolemy II and his sister-

wife Arsino€e(ahr-SIN-oh-ee)IIwerebothworshipedas

gods in their lifetimes. Arsino€e played an energetic role

in government and was involved in the expansion of the

Egyptian navy. She was also the first Egyptian queen

whose portrait appeared on coins with her husband.

Hellenistic queens also showed an intense interest in

culture. They wrote poems, collected art, and corre-

sponded with intellectuals.

Culture in the Hellenistic World

Q FOCUSQUESTION: What achievements in literature,

art, science, and philosophy occurred during the

Hellenistic period?

Although the Hellenistic kingdoms encompassed vast

areas and many diverse peoples, the Greeks provided a

sense of unity as a result of the diffusion of Greek cul-

ture throughout the region. The Hellenistic era was a

period of considerable cultural accomplishment in

many areas—literature, art, science, and philosophy.

Although these achievements occurred everywhere in

the Hellenistic world, certain centers, especially the

great cities of Alexandria and Pergamum, stood out. In

both cities, cultural developments were encouraged by

the rulers themselves. Rich Hellenistic kings had con-

siderable resources with which to patronize culture.

The Ptolemies in Egypt made Alexandria an espe-

cially important cultural center. The library became the

largest in ancient times, housing more than half a mil-

lion scrolls. The museum (literally, “temple of the

Muses”) created a favorable environment for scholarly

research. Alexandria became home to scholars of all

kinds—poets, writers, philosophers, and scientists.

Culture in the Hellenistic World 85

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