Western Civilization

individual who served a lord in a military capacity was

known as a vassal.

Both the breakdown of governments, which allowed

powerful nobles to take control of large areas of land,

and a change in fighting techniques contributed to this

process. The Frankish army had originally consisted of

foot soldiers dressed in coats of mail and armed with

swords. But with the introduction of larger horses and

the stirrup in the eighth century, a military change

began to occur. Earlier, horsemen had been throwers of

spears. Now they wore armored coats of mail (the

larger horse could carry the weight) and wielded long

lances that enabled them to act as battering rams (the

stirrups kept the riders on their horses). For almost

five hundred years, warfare in Europe would be domi-

nated by heavily armored cavalry, orknights, as they

came to be called.

Of course, a horse, armor, and weapons were expen-

sive to purchase and maintain, and learning to wield

these instruments skillfully on horseback took much

time and practice. Consequently, lords who wanted

men to fight for them had to grant each vassal a piece

of land that provided for the support of the vassal and

his family. In return, the vassal provided fighting skills.

In the early Middle Ages, when trade was minimal and

wealth was based primarily on landholdings, land

became the most important gift a lord could give to a

vassal in return for military service.

The relationship between lord and vassal was made

official by a public ceremony. To become a vassal, a man

performed an act of homage to his lord, as described in

this passage from a medieval digest of law:

The man should put his hands together as a sign of

humility, and place them between the two hands of his

lord as a token that he vows everything to him and

promises faith to him; and the lord should receive him

and promise to keep faith with him. Then the man

should say: “Sir, I enter your homage and faith and

become your man by mouth and hands [that is, by taking

the oath and placing his hands between those of the

lord], and I swear and promise to keep faith and loyalty

to you against all others, and to guard your rights with

all my strength.”^8

As in the earlier Germanic band, loyalty to one’s lord

was the chief virtue (see the box on p. 185).

Fief-Holding

The land or some other type of income granted to a

vassal in return for military service came to be known

as afief(FEEF). In time, many vassals who held such

grants of land came to exercise rights of jurisdiction or

political and legal authority within their fiefs. As the

Carolingian world disintegrated politically under the

impact of internal dissension and invasions, an increas-

ing number of powerful lords arose. Instead of a single

government, many people were now responsible for

keeping order.

Fief-holding also became increasingly complicated

with the development ofsubinfeudation.Thevas-

sals of a king, who were themselves great lords, might

also have vassals who would owe them military serv-

ice in return for a grant of land from their estates.

Thosevassals,inturn,mightlikewisehavevassals,

who at this low level would be simple knights with

A Knight’s Equipment Showing Saddle and Stirrups.In

return for his fighting skills, a knight received a piece of

land from his lord that provided for his economic support.

Pictured here is a charging knight with his equipment. The

introduction of the high saddle, stirrup, and larger horses

allowed horsemen to wear heavier armor and to wield

long lances, vastly improving the fighting ability of the

cavalry.

Mus

ee Cond

e, Chantilly//Giraudon/The Bridgeman Art Library

184 Chapter 8European Civilization in the Early Middle Ages, 750–1000

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