Western Civilization

While Latin continued to be used for literary pur-

poses, by the twelfth century, much new literature was

being written in the vernacular (the local language, such

as Spanish, French, English, or German). A new market

for vernacular literature appeared in the twelfth century

when educated laypeople at court and in the new urban

society sought fresh avenues of entertainment.

Perhaps the most popular vernacular literature of

the twelfth century was troubadour poetry, which was

chiefly the product of nobles and knights. This poetry

focused on the love of a knight for a lady, generally a

married noble lady, who inspires him to become a

braver knight and a better poet. A good example is

found in the laments of the crusading noble Jaufre

Rudel (zhoh-FRAY roo-DEL), who cherished a dream

lady from afar whom he said he would always love but

feared he would never meet:

Most sad, most joyous shall I go away,

Let me have seen her for a single day,

My love afar,

I shall not see her, for her land and mine

Are sundered, and the ways are hard to find,

So many ways, and I shall lose my way,

So wills it God.^6

Although it originated in southern France, troubadour

poetry also spread to northern France, Italy, and

Germany.

Anothertypeofvernacularliteraturewasthe

chanson de geste(shahn-SAWNH duh ZHEST), or he-

roic epic. The earliest and finest example is theSong

of Roland, which appeared around 1100 and was writ-

ten in a dialect of French, a language derived from

Latin. The chansons de geste were written for a male-

dominated society. The chief events described in these

poems are battles and political contests. Their world

is one of combat in which knights fight courageously

for their kings and lords. Women play little or no role

in this literary genre.

Romanesque Architecture: “A White

Mantle of Churches”

The eleventh and twelfth centuries witnessed an explo-

sion of building, both private and public. The construc-

tion of castles and churches absorbed most of the

surplus resources of medieval society and at the same

time reflected its basic preoccupations, God and war-

fare. The churches were by far the most conspicuous of

the public buildings.

Hundreds of new cathedrals, abbeys, and pilgrimage

churches, as well as thousands of parish churches in ru-

ral villages, were built in the eleventh and twelfth cen-

turies. This building spree reflected a revived religious

culture and the increased wealth of the period pro-

duced by agriculture, trade, and the growth of cities.

The cathedrals of the eleventh and twelfth centuries

were built in theRomanesquestyle, a truly interna-

tional style. The construction of churches required the

services of a cadre of professional master builders

whose employment throughout Europe guaranteed

international unity in basic features.

Romanesque churches were normally built in the ba-

silica shape used in the construction of churches in the

late Roman Empire. Basilicas were simply rectangular

buildings with flat wooden roofs. Elaborating on this

basic plan, Romanesque builders made a significant

innovation by replacing the flat wooden roof with a

Barrel Vaulting.The eleventh and twelfth centuries

witnessed an enormous amount of church construction.

Utilizing the basilica shape, master builders replaced flat

wooden roofs with long, round stone vaults known as barrel

vaults. As this illustration of a Romanesque church in Vienne,

France, indicates, the barrel vault limited the size of a church

and left little room for windows.

Gianni Dagli Orti/The Art Archive at Art Resource, NY

216 Chapter 9The Recovery and Growth of European Society in the High Middle Ages

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