otherwise, as a phenomenon has no particular connection to the martial
arts, but it does dramatize the place of martial arts in society. Even with
the advent of industrialized warfare, the control of any and all means of
violence, including traditional martial arts, is of concern to the state.
The most significant rebellion in Qing history was the Taiping Rebellion
( 1850 – 64 ).^19 This Christian-inspired rebellion, fought with both modern
firearms and traditional weapons, appeared for a time to threaten the
existence of the Qing Dynasty itself. The rebellion’s origins in poor and
marginal communities within China as well as an avowed ideology of equal-
ity led to large numbers of femalefighters in the Taiping ranks. As always
during rebellion and turmoil in China, the martial arts very quickly spread
throughout society. Not only the Taipings but also the many communities in
their path trained in the martial arts. The Qing military fought ineffectively at
first, revealing deep failures in its martial arts and military training. Indeed,
the imperial army never really recovered, and it was regional forces raised
from local Chinese that eventually defeated the Taipings. These regional
forces returned to the basics of military training, motivating the soldiers,
training them in all the necessary martial arts includingfirearms, and devel-
oping discipline.
The Manchu authorities were troubled by the ineffectiveness of Manchu
units. As social and economic difficulties plagued the Qing Dynasty in the
nineteenth century, some caused and others merely exacerbated by the
intrusion of the Western powers, the explicitly racial divide between ruler
and ruled reopened. Anti-foreignism easily extended to cover anti-Manchu
resentment. As real Manchu military power disappeared, the government
was increasingly dependent upon the military power of its Chinese subjects.
Most Chinese officials were loyal to the dynasty, despite some suspicions on
the part of some Manchus. Yet the goal of the Manchu ruling class became
to focus anti-foreignism squarely on the Westerners and away from them-
selves. At the same time, the government was forced to make a series of
concessions to the West after losing repeated military conflicts with them.
This was a dangerous game, and it eventually spun out of control.
Beginning in Shandong in 1898 , large numbers of“boxers”began vio-
lently to oppose foreigners.^20 Christian missionaries used the power of their
governments to intimidate the Qing central government to gain influence at
the local level. Western immunity from Qing laws was used to shield
Chinese Christian converts and influence local courts. What seemed human-
itarian work from the missionaries’standpoint was frequently seen as
unwarranted and unwelcome intrusions into local society. The missionaries
were often openly contemptuous of local customs and extremely aggressive
Rebellions 209