device. A similar process of adopting a foreign military practice would occur
with the advent of cavalry at the end of the Spring and Autumn period.^14
Chariots were expensive machines to build and maintain, and they were
challenging to operate. Over time, the expense and difficulty of manufac-
turing and driving a chariot became not only an accepted part of aristo-
cratic life but also a symbol of high status. Chariot driving became a
martial art, a necessary skill for aristocratic participation in warfare. The
way one participated in battle was a status marker. Aristocratic men in the
Western Zhou and Spring and Autumn period fought from chariots with
bows in the same manner that they hunted for game, and low-born men
fought on foot. Even within the three-man team who rode a chariot into
battle, one’s rank relative to the rest of the team determined one’s role. The
lowest-ranked man drove the chariot, the next higher-ranked man wielded
a dagger-axe or spear, and the highest-ranked man employed a bow. Most
aristocratic men would have been trained in all these skills–chariot-
driving, wielding the dagger-axe, and shooting with a bow.
Chariot-to-chariot warfare among the aristocrats not only framed the
social status of the important participants in battle but also dictated where,
when, and under what conditions that battle could take place. Just as the
Ancient Greeks had to agree upon a battlefield for their infantry battles, so
too did ancient Chinese chariot-riding aristocrats have tofind a proper
space for their chariot battles. Battles requiredflat, open spaces; took place
during daylight hours (presumably starting early enough in the day to
complete thefight); and needed dry weather. A large-scale battle could
not take place on a muddyfield where all the chariots would bog down,
though we hear of several instances of individual chariots getting stuck in
the mud. Fighting was a highly constrained and formalized event, not
outwardly dissimilar to a modern sporting event. The goal of an aristocrat
was tofight and defeat another aristocrat.
This is not to say that warfare was not a deadly business. The partic-
ipants were actively trying to kill each other, and in the Shang dynasty, at
least, captured enemies could be sacrificed to one’s ancestors. Thus, dating
just after two brief divinations mentioning chariots in warfare by Shang
enemies, we have a long inscription on a bovine scapula recording a Shang
victory from around1100 bce:
Minor Vassal Qiang allied and attacked, capturing Rou of Wei... 24 men, 1 , 570
(men) of Er, the Earl of Fan...horses, two chariots, 183 shields,fifty quivers,
and...arrows. We (used = ) sacrificed Earl Du of You to Da Yi, (used = ) sacrificed
Earl Mao of Shen to...Fan to Ancestor Yi, and (used = ) sacrificed Rou to Ancestor
Ding.^15
Chariots 23