use wooden long swords in place of long swords and swords.”^25 The
Jinshuaccount of the same issue is slightly more detailed:“In the Han
regulations, from the Son of Heaven to the hundred officials, there were
none who did not wear a long sword. Afterward, it was only in court that
they brought long swords. In the generation of the Jin they began to
substitute using wood, the aristocrats only used jade heads, the mean
also used pearls, gold and silver, and tortoise-shell as engraved orna-
ments.”^26 We see here a clear separation between the real warrior and
the court in weaponry. Self-defense at court, at least, was no longer
important. At the same time, however, the sword, even a wooden one,
remained an important symbol of martial orientation. Court officials and
the ruler should be armed, if only ritually. And the ritual weapon of choice
was not only made of wood, it was a long sword, an already outdated
weapon. This may have been an expression of persistent tradition or an
effort to emphasize that the courtiers’weapons were not really for combat
and they were not martial artists. Of course, a de-emphasis on martial
deportment could also undermine army morale. Conversely, the victorious
emperor Wu of the Northern Zhou wore military clothing even in his
capital to enhance his martial demeanor. He also personally participated
in thefighting that so improved the fortunes of his dynasty.^27
The long sword also persisted in sword dances and gained a new use as an
element of religious Daoist rituals. Several men were noted for being accom-
plished long sword dancers when young, as one characteristic among many
admirable qualities. One man was credited as pursuing knight-errantry and
liking to patronize or entertain long sword guests when he was young. At
least in some sense, then, wandering martial artists were still around to
entertain. As religious Daoism developed, religiously empowered long
swords also appeared. This use of long swords continued in religious
Daoism in both physical and graphic forms up through portrayals in
twentieth-century movies.^28
The sword, as opposed to the long sword, became so ubiquitous that
it did not warrant particular notice. Unless otherwise noted, all soldiers
were assumed to be armed with swords. Much more rarely seen are
references to staffs or clubs. On one occasion General He Ji armedfive
thousand strong, well-trained soldiers with staffs when he needed to
destroy a large number of mountain bandits. His tactic was so effective
that his troops killed some ten thousand bandits (somewhat exagger-
ated).^29 A staff was understood to be a very effective weapon; as described
by one text,“studying the seven foot staff techniques, one can face naked
blades, or handle large halberds.”^30
84 The Six Dynasties