306 A Positive Century (1815–1914)skills. Wheaton and Calvo served as ambassadors for their respective coun-
tries (Calvo did ser vice for Paraguay and the Vatican, as well as for Argen-
tina). So did Bello and Alberdi. In Belgium, Rivier served for a time as con-
sul general for his native Switzerland.
An especially important external sign of the growing importance of legal
issues in international relations was the employment of in- house legal coun-
sel by foreign offi ces (a pro cess on which there is a great deal of light yet to be
shed). In the case of Britain, the practice dates eff ectively from 1876, with
the appointment of Julian Pauncefort as legal assistant secretary in the For-
eign Offi ce. In France, the grand- sounding position of jurisconsult to the
Ministry of Foreign Aff airs was created in 1890, specifi cally for occupation
by Renault. Over the years, he represented France at many international con-
ferences. In 1903, he was accorded the even grander title of minister plenti-
potentiary and envoy extraordinary. Fedor Fedorovich von Martens served
the Rus sian government as a legal adviser for some forty years, beginning in
- Phillipp Zorn performed similar ser vice for Emperor William II of
Germany. Both Fiore and Anzilotti advised the Italian foreign ministry. In
Latin America, Bello, and later Álvarez, served the Chilean government.
Th e American government made especially liberal use of international
legal expertise at this level. Moore, for example, worked for the Department
of State in 1886– 91, before taking up his professorship at Columbia. Even
aft er that, he periodically provided legal assistance to the government (such
as advice on the conclusion of the peace treaty with Spain in 1898 at the
conclusion of the Spanish- American War). Robert Lansing, a highly experi-
enced practitioner of international law, became a legal adviser in the De-
partment of State.
Lawyers sometimes labored in foreign countries. A French lawyer named
Paul Pradier- Fodéré, for example, went to Peru in 1874, chiefl y to reor ga nize
the Department of Po liti cal Science and Administration at the University of
Lima. While there, he founded the Faculty of Po liti cal and Administrative
Sciences, taught a number of courses, and was named to the country’s Supe-
rior Council of Public Instruction. Rolin- Jaequemyns spent about ten years
in Siam (in 1892– 1902), where he performed a range of legal and adminis-
trative ser vices.
On occasion, international lawyers served as foreign ministers of their
countries. Most conspicuous in this regard was Mancini, who was Italian