632 linda l. carroll
emotionalism over rationalism that would mark later theater and opera
first manifested itself in the Paduan sperone speroni’s Canace (1542),
while the Paduan Carlo dottori was the only noteworthy local author of
tragedies. the epic poem, with similar imperialist associations, remained
similarly neglected.
With women more active in the cultural sphere, it was possible for
actresses to flourish on the Venetian stage, as did the most famous of her
day, the Paduan isabella andreini, discovered by the important theatrical
entrepreneur Flaminio scala. she shared the literary ambitions of contem-
porary actors, setting as her goal the respected status of author, which she
achieved through the publication of lyric poetry, a pastoral play, and other
works. she managed patronage in a shrewd progression from Venice to
the French royal circle and back, especially cultivating noblewomen. she
even capitalized on the popularity of aristotelian norms by alluding in her
works to the muteness and material nature of animals, reflecting aristo-
tle’s definition of human superiority in language and spirit. she further
managed her image with a woodcut published in her works showing her
in expensive clothing and jewels and insisted on her status as a profes-
sional actress and, later, a member of an accademia. her preferred theatri-
cal form was the pastoral, then achieving great popularity, whose chastity
and delicacy of sentiment suited her noblewoman dedicatees. these
measures were taken at least in part to fend off a danger that threatened
women authors in general and especially actresses, that of being cast as
meretrici oneste or high-class courtesans. her husband giovanni battista
carried on her effort at literary recognition after her death by publishing
her letters, while her actor son, Francesco, achieved fame in the character
of Capitan spavento. he continued the creative vein of late 16th-century
improvised theater, rejecting aristotelian unities of time, place, and action
and inventing new forms.17
the context in which andreini and other professional actors could
flourish was the increased involvement of the Venetian patriciate in the-
atrical, as well as literary, endeavors. some, such as alvise Pasqualigo,
became authors of pastorals, comedies (the english translation of one of
which, Fedele, is believed to have inspired several shakespearean char-
acters, including Falstaff), and letters.18 Others developed public, paying
17 Laura riccò, “Su le carte e fra le scene.” Teatro in forma di libro nel Cinquecento italiano
(rome, 2008), pp. 285–95.
18 adolfo albertazzi, Romanzi e romanzieri del Cinquecento e del Seicento (bologna,
1891), pp. 46–58.