and nature of the Christian artistic image, its relation to the spiritual realm, and indeed of
the entire world of matter to the sacred.
Celia Chazelle
[See also: THEODULF OF ORLÉANS]
Theodulf of Orléans. Libri Carolini sive Caroli Magni capitulare de imaginibus, ed. Hubert
Bastgen. Hanover: Imprensis Bibliopolii Hahniani, 1924.
——. Opus Caroli regis contra synodum (Libri Carolini), ed. Ann Freeman. MGH Legum sectio 3,
Concilia 2, Neubearbeitung. (Forthcoming.)
Chazelle, Celia. “Matter, Spirit, and Image in the Libri Carolini.” Recherches augustiniennes 21
(1986):163–84.
Freeman, Ann. “Carolingian Orthodoxy and the Fate of the Libri Carolini.” Viator 16 (1985):65–
108.
——. “Theodulf of Orléans and the Libri Carolini.” Speculum 32 (1957):663–705.
Gero, Stephen. “The Libri Carolini and the Image Controversy.” Greek Orthodox Theological
Review 18 (1973):7–34.
LIÈGE
. Liège owes its founding to St. Lambert, bishop of Maastricht, who was martyred
(705/06) in an oratory he built here on the banks of the Meuse. His successor, St. Hubert,
impressed by miracles, moved the bishopric here from Maastricht ca. 717. Under the
powerful Bishop Notger (r. 972–1008), Liège became one of the ecclesiastical
principalities of the Holy Roman Empire ca. 980, and the cathedral school that flourished
here made Liège the leading intellectual center in the West until it was supplanted by
Paris in the 12th century. Liège was granted a communal charter in 1185. In the course of
the 13th century, the trade guilds gained considerable power, including the right of self-
representation on the city council, which was resented by the nobles and upper classes. In
August 1312, the nobles attempted to wrest back power, but their entire armed party was
burned in the church of Saint-Martin (the “Male-Saint-Martin”), and in February 1313
the trade guilds and laborers were granted political equality. Privileges were revoked in
1408 after general uprisings in the northern communes, and in 1467–68, during the
Burgundian domination of the Low Countries, Charles the Bold ruthlessly sacked and
burned the town. After the fall of Burgundian power, Liège was rebuilt under Érard de la
Marck (r. 1506–38).
The art of working copper and brass originated in the 11th century at neighboring Huy
and led eventually to the establishment in Liège of a flourishing school of liturgical
metalwork during the 12th and 13th centuries. The baptismal font by Renier de Huy (fl.
1107–18) in the church of Saint-Barthélémy in Liège is an important example of the
earlier, more sober Romanesque style. The font is supported by twelve half-figures of
oxen, symbolic of the Apostles, and includes five scenes in high relief, centering on
Christ’s baptism. Godefroi de Huy employed the more complex champlevé technique of
enameling his many reliquaries. Nicolas de Verdun, who created the reliquary of Our
Lady for the cathedral of Tournai (1205), marks the transition to Gothic style. In the later
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