MARRIAGE, CLANDESTINE
. According to medieval canon law, the heart of a valid marriage was consent, expressed
in the oaths exchanged between the principals. This meant that if a man and woman
swore to be true to each other and then proceeded to consummate their union, they were
indeed married, even if their wedding was unwitnessed. Such a marriage was termed
“clandestine.” But the church greatly preferred witnesses, because a clandestine marriage
could easily lead to disputes if one or both of the parties later claimed they were not
really married at all. Therefore, although clandestine marriages were recognized, and
those who had taken part in them could not proceed to marry anyone else, such persons
were nevertheless expected to undergo penance to make up for having entered into
marriage in an illegal manner.
Constance B.Bouchard
Sheehan, Michael M. “Choice of Marriage Partner in the Middle Ages: Development and Mode of
Application of a Theory of Marriage.” Studies in Medieval and Renaissance History 11
(1978):1–33.
MARSEILLE
. Founded ca. 600 B.C. by Greek traders, Marseille quickly became one of the most
important centers for Hellenic commerce in the western Mediterranean. Within a century,
Marseille had established colonies of its own, becoming a rival of Carthage. With the
expansion of Roman power, the Marseillais served as faithful Roman allies while
preserving their autonomy. In 476, the city came under the control of the Visigoths, and
then the Burgundians, Ostrogoths, and finally, in 536, the Franks.
Throughout the 5th century, Marseille enjoyed an active trade with the East, North
Africa, and Spain and had sizable resident colonies of Greeks, Jews, and Syrians. By the
late 6th century, Lombard attacks and internecine rivalry among the Merovingian and
then the Carolingian Franks resulted in a prolonged decline for the city. It was only after
972, when the Muslims had been forced from the region, that Marseille began to recover
its former economic activity. At the same time, the monastery of SaintVictor of Marseille
became one of the leading forces for Christian reform.
In the 13th century, after short-lived experiments in self-government, Marseille was
ruled by the house of Toulouse and then in mid-century by Charles of Anjou as count of
Provence. In this period, the city’s trade flourished until the Muslims reasserted their
control over the Levant. In the 1440s, René d’Anjou again restored the city’s commercial
prosperity, which continued after Provence was incorporated into the French kingdom in
the 1480s.
Stephen Weinberger
The original crypt of the basilica of Saint-Victor in Marseille was carved out of the
rock in the early 5th century, when an abbey was founded here by St. John Cassian. His
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