person seen as able to intercede with God on behalf of humans. The bodies of saints, left
on earth to aid the living, could work miracles, just as the saint, or Christ himself, had
done while alive. Thus, relics—the physical remains, or closely associated objects, of the
holy person—formed the sine qua non of the shrine to which pilgrims journeyed.
Well over 1,000 centers of pilgrimage existed in France from the Gallo-Roman period
to the end of the Middle Ages. Relics at shrines varied greatly, and many shrines, such as
Aix-la-Chapelle, contained a large number. Cultic shrines also developed around
miraculous statues of the Virgin (Rocamadour [12th c.] and Mauriac [13th c.]), as well as
at sites designated as holy through supernatural apparitions (the Virgin at Rocheville
[14th c.] or the archangel Michael at Mont-Saint-Michel [8th c.]).
A number of important shrines are located at places of great height (Le Puy) or near
springs (Conques). Some were erected over pagan sanctuaries and Gallo-Roman healing
centers. Some Christian shrines were known as particularly efficacious for specific
healing, such as Sainte-Foy at Conques for eye ailments and the church of John the
Baptist at Saint-Denis for epilepsy.
Pilgrimage was motivated by a variety of reasons. Besides being an act of piety and
veneration, a pilgrimage might be undertaken for remission of sins or for purification and
absolution and, from the 6th century at least, could be imposed as penance. Many went
on pilgrimage seeking miracles and cures or to give thanks for divine assistance. Some
went to shrines to die in the presence of relics.
Kings, queens, nobles, and high ecclesiastics have been recorded as pilgrims through
the centuries, but shrines attracted untold numbers of ordinary folk, especially in times of
calamity like plagues and civil unrest. For the ordinary pilgrim, a journey to a shrine
within France had the advantages of requiring less cost and less time than the great
international pilgrimages to the Holy Land, Rome, or Santiago de Compostela.
By the 12th century, pilgrims set out from their home parishes after receiving special
blessings, and they wore clothing that identified them as pilgrims. Customary garb was a
cloak, a low-crowned and broad-brimmed hat, a pouch (called a “scrip”), and a pilgrim’s
staff. Pilgrims carried letters from ecclesiastical authorities to identify them officially for
their protection, although their efficacy was not always certain.
Most pilgrimages were made on foot, but those wealthy enough could travel by horse.
Walking barefoot was not common, although some penitents and pious pilgrims did so.
Louis IX is said to have walked barefoot about 15 miles to Chartres. Travel on roads was
especially dangerous in some periods (the 7th to mid-11th centuries, in particular) due to
civil unrest, invasions, and robbery.
Food and water could be brought from home if the pilgrimage was for only a few
days, but if the pilgrim was away longer resources had to be found along the roads.
During periods of civil unrest and invasions, this was not always easy, nor were
accommodations always to be found. A system of hospices for pilgrims within France is
not apparent before the late 11th century, when the Augustinians were active in
establishing shelters, especially in inhospitable regions. The Templars, by the 12th
century, also provided assistance to pilgrims, and by the 13th century many
confraternities were organized to help. By the 12th century, inns were no longer so
difficult to find. Accommodations could be difficult even when the shrine was reached.
Pilgrims to Rocamadour were frequently sheltered in tents because the town was so
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