rarely. Instead, arbitrators tended to be the prominent and powerful men of the district
who were frequently identified simply as boni viri.
Three characteristics of arbitration settlements stand out. First, despite the weight of
the evidence, arbitrators most often recommended a compromise. With each side
receiving some satisfaction, there was less likelihood that the dispute would be renewed.
Second, in order to ensure the stability of the settlement, great care was taken to have it
witnessed by as many people as possible. In some cases, a settlement might be held in
more than one location. Finally, the guarantors (fideiussores) often committed themselves
and their property to ensure the compliance of the disputants to the settlement.
Despite the inherent fragility of such settlements, arbitration proved to be a
remarkably successful pragmatic means of ending disputes.
Stephen Weinberger
Davis, Wendy, and Paul Fouracre, eds. The Settlement of Disputes in Early Medieval Europe.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1966.
Weinberger, Stephen. “Coursjudiciaires, justice et responsabilit 6 sociale dans la Provence
médiévale: IXe–XIe siècles.” Revue historique 267(1982):273–88.
White, Stephen D. “Pactum...legum vincit et amor judicium: The Settlement of Disputes by
Compromise in Eleventh-Century Western France.” American Journal of Legal History
22(1978):281–308.
ARCHER/BOWMAN
. Archers and archery were a traditional part of the French army during the Middle Ages.
The bow was first used by the Franks in the 4th century but did not become a required
arm of the Frankish infantry until the time of Charlemagne. These early archers generally
were equipped with a short bow of simple wood construction. But in the following
centuries bows were improved by the addition of horn, sinew, and glue in a composite
construction complete with angled ears to give more pull to the bowstring. By the 11th
century, archers had become a designated unit within the French army, differing in
responsibility, status, arms, and armor from the regular infantry unit. Rarely were archers
mounted, and then only for transportation to and from the battlefield.
With the influx of crossbows, the use of short bows died out in French armies, and by
the 13th century they were not considered a weapon of war in most parts of Europe.
However, they did persist as hunting weapons. During the late Middle Ages, the
crossbow dominated the archery of the French army, although some French military
leaders attempted to hire groups of short- and longbowmen from Scotland and mounted
archers from Spain and Italy.
Archers were seen as unchivalric participants of battle and frequently were massacred
by opposing forces if captured.
Kelly De Vries
[See also: ARMOR AND WEAPONS; CROSSBOW]
Bradbury, Jim. The Medieval Archer. New York: St. Martin, 1985.
Contamine, Philippe. War in the Middle Ages, trans. Michael Jones. London: Blackwell, 1984.
Medieval france: an encyclopedia 114